UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT   LOS  ANGELES 


r 


A   TREATISE 


AGRICULTURE, 

COMPRISING 

A  CONCISE   HISTORY   OF    ITS   ORIGIN  AND    PROGRESS;    THE 

PRESENT    CONDITION    OF  THE   ART   ABROAD   AND 

AT     HOME,     AND     THE     THEORY     AND 

PRACTICE    OF    HUSBANDRY. 

TO  WHICH    IS    ADDED, 
A  DISSERTATION  ON  THE  KITCHEN  AND  FRUIT   GARDEN. 

BY    JOHN    ARMSTRONG. 
WITH      NOTES     BY     3  .     BUEL. 


NEW    YORK: 

HARPER    &    BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS. 
1864. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1839,  by 

HARPER   <fc  BROTHERS, 
in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  Southern  District  of  New  York 


PREFACE. 

i  - 

W} 

AFTER  Gen.  Armstrong  had  retired  from  public  to 
;   private  life,  and  turned  his  attention  particularly  to 
rural  pursuits,  he  wrote  the  following  treatise  on 
agriculture  for  the  Albany  Argus,  then  conducted 
by  the  subscriber.     To  give  it  to  the  public  in  a  less 
perishable  shape  than  the  columns  of  a  newspaper, 
££  it  was  afterward  published  in  book  form.     The  ob- 
ject of  General  Armstrong  was  "  to  contribute  his 
&'j  aid,"  to  use  his  language,  "  in  giving  to  the  study 
and  practice  of  agriculture  a  new  and  increased 
LU  impulse  throughout  the  state ;   and   he  supposed 
this  could  be  best  done  by  exhibiting  concisely  the 
origin  and  progress  of  the  art,  its  present  condition 
abroad  and  at  home,  and,  lastly,  the  theory  and 
practice  in  relation  to  it  which  have  arisen  out  of 
the  present  philosophical  attainments  in  Europe." 
£       At  a  subsequent  period,  at  our  request,  the  gen- 
ii^ eral   wrote  two    essays,  one    upon  the  "•  kitchen, 
J  and  the  other  upon  the  fruit  garden,  which  were 
M  published  in  the  second  and  third  volumes  of  the 
£  Memoirs  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture.     As  there 
®   were  but  few  copies  of  either  the  treatise  or  the 
memoirs  printed,  the  circulation  was,  of  course, 

310776 


VI  PREFACE. 

limited,  and  the  supply  inadequate  to  the  demand. 
Now  that  a  taste  for  agricultural  information  and 
agricultural  improvement  has  become  more  gen- 
eral, and  that  these  writings  are  not  to  be  found 
in  the  market,  the  subscriber  has  been  induced  to 
unite  them  in  one  volume,  and  to  subjoin  such 
notes  as  a  lapse  of  twenty  years  has,  in  a  meas- 
ure, rendered  expedient,  on  account  of  the  im- 
provements which  have,  during  that  time,  been 
made  in  rural  economy ;  and,  in  preparing  this 
new  edition,  he  is  persuaded  that  he  is  rendering 
an  acceptable  service  to  the  agriculturist  and  to 
the  community  at  large. 

J.   BUEL. 
Albany,  June,  1839. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
Of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  Agriculture      .        .        .     Page  9 

CHAPTER  II. 
Of  the  actual  State  of  Agriculture  in  Europe  .  .  .13 

CHAPTER  III. 

Theory  of  Vegetation  .  33 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Of  the  Analysis  of  Soils,  and  the  agricultural  relations  between 
Soils  and  Plants 46 

CHAPTER  V. 
Of  practical  Agriculture  and  its  necessary  Implements  .  52 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Of  Manures ;  their  management  and  application  .  .  58 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Of  Tillage,  and  the  Principles  on  which  it  is  founded  .  67 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Of  a  Rotation  of  Crops,  and  the  Principles  on  which  it  is  found- 
ed        72 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Of  the  Plants  recommended  for  a  course  of  Crops  in  the  prece- 
ding chapter,  and  their  culture 77 

CHAPTER  X. 

Of  other  Plants  useful  in  a  Rotation  of  Crops,  and  adapted  to  our 
Climate  105 


VI11  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Of  Meadows Page  113 

CHAPTER  Xll. 
Of  Farm  Cattle 122 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
Of  the  Dairy 133 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
Of  Orchards 141 

CHAPTER  XV 

Of  the  Kitchen  Garden .150 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
Of  the  Fruit  Garden  *1? 


A   TREATISE 

ON 

AGRICULTURE 


CHAPTER  I. 

OF   THE   RISE   AND    PROGRESS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

THE  origin  of  this  art  is  lost  among  the  fables  of 
antiquity,  and  we  have  to  regret  that,  in  the  present 
state  of  knowledge,  we  are  even  ignorant  of  the 
time  when  the  plough  was  invented,  and  of  the 
name  and  condition  of  the  inventor.*  When,  there- 
fore, we  speak  of  the  beginning  of  the  art,  we  but  al- 
lude to  certain  appearances  which  indicate  its  exist- 
ence, and  the  employment  given  by  it  to  the  minds, 
as  well  as  to  the  hands  of  mankind.  Such  were 
the  artificial  canals  and  lakes  of  Egypt.  Menaced 
at  one  time  by  a  redundancy  of  water,  and  at  an- 
other by  its  scarcity  or  want,  the  genius  of  that 
very  extraordinary  people  could  not  but  employ  it- 
self, promptly  and  strenuously,  in  remedying  these 
evils,  and  eventually  in  converting  them  into  bene- 
fits ;  and  hence  it  was,  that,  when  other  parts  of  the 
world  exhibited  little  more  of  agricultural  knowl- 
edge than  appertains  to  the  state  of  nature  ima- 
gined by  philosophers,  the  Egyptians  thoroughly  un- 
derstood and  skilfully  practised  irrigation,  that  most 

*  This  invention  has  been  attributed  to  Osiris.  See  Millot's 
Gen.  Hist. 


10  AGRICULTURE  : 

scientific  and  profitable  branch  of  the  art.*  Like 
their  own  Nile,  their  population  had  its  overflow, 
which  colonized  Carthage  and  Greece,!  and  carried 
with  it  the  talent  and  intelligence  of  the  mother 
country.  The  former  of  these  states,  though  es- 
sentially commercial,  had  its  plantations;  and  so 
highly  prized  were  the  agricultural  works  of  Mago, 
that,  when  Carthage  was  captured,  they  alone,  of 
the  many  books  found  in  it,  were  retained  and  trans- 
lated by  the  Romans.  A  similar  inference  may  be 
drawn  from  the  history  of  Greece;  for  assuredly 
that  art  could  not  have  been  either  unknown  or 
neglected  which  so  long  employed  the  pen  and  the 
tongue  of  the  great  Xenophon.J  It  must, 'however, 
be  admitted  that,  of  the  ancient  nations,  it  is  only 
among  the  Romans  that  we  find  real  and  multiplied 
evidences  of  the  progress  of  the  art ;  facts  substi- 
tuted for  conjectures  and  inferences.  Cato,  Varro, 
Columella,  Virgil,  and  Pliny,  wrote  on  the  subject, 
and  it  is  from  their  works  we  derive  the  following 
brief  exposition  of  Roman  husbandry. 

The  plough,  the  great  instrument  of  agricultural 
labour,  was  well  known  and  generally  used  among 
the  Romans,  and  was  drawn  exclusively  by  horned 
cattle.  Of  fossil  manures  we  know  that  they  used 
lime,  and  probably  marl,§  and  that  those  of  animal 
and  vegetable  basis  were  carefully  collected.  At- 
tention to  this  subject  made  part  of  the  national  re- 

*  The  best  practical  illustration  of  this  opinion  is  found  in 
the  Valley  of  the  Po,  where  "  every  rood  of  earth  maintains  its 
man." 

.  t  The  Egyptians  might  have  sent  some  colonies  into  these 
countries ;  but  the  commonly  received  opinion  is,  that  the  Pe- 
lasgi  first  settled  Greece,  and  that  Carthage  was  founded  by  a 
company  of  Phoenicians  under  Queen  Dido. 

J  Xenophon  wrote  several  treatises  on  husbandry,  and  gave 
public  lectures  on  it  at  Scillonte,  whither  a  weak  and  wicked 
government  had  banished  him. 

§  For  the  first  part  of  this  assertion  we  have  the  authority  of 
Pliny ;  for  the  latter,  the  practice  of  their  colonies  both  in  Gaul 
and  Britain. 


ITS    RISE    AND    PROGRESS.  1  1 

ligion;  the  dunghill  had  its  god,  and  Stercutus  his 
temple  and  worshippers.  Their  corn-crops  were 
abundant ;  besides  barley  and  far*  they  had  three 
species  of  wheat,  the  robus  or  red,  the  sihgo  or 
white,  and  the  triticum  trimestre,  three  months  or 
summer  wheat;  they  had,  besides,  millet,  panis, 
zea,  and  rye,  all  of  which,  producing  a  flour  conver 
tible  into  bread,  were  known  by  the  common  name 
of  frumentum,  corn  or  grain.  Leguminous  crops 
were  frequent ;  the  lupine,  in  particular,  was  raised 
in  abundance,  and,  besides  being  employed  as  a 
manure,f  entered  extensively  into  the  subsistence 
of  men,  cattle,  and  poultry.  The  cultivation  of 
garden  vegetables  was  well  understood,  and  employ- 
ed many  hands ;  and  meadows,  natural  and  artifi- 
cial, were  brought  to  great  perfection.  Lucerne  and 
fenu-gree  were  the  basis  of  the  latter;  and  pease, 
rye,  and  a  mixture  of  barley,  beans  and  pease,  called 
farrago,  were  occasionally  used  in  the  stables  as 
green  food.  Their  flocks  were  abundant,  and  formed 
their  first  representative  of  wealth,  as  is  sufficiently 
indicated  by  their  word  pecunia.  Vines  and  olives, 
and  their  products,  wine  and  oil,  had  a  full  share 
of  attention  and  use.  The  rearing  of  poultry  made 
an  important  part  of  domestic  economy  ;  nor  were 
apiaries  and  fishponds  forgotten  or  neglected. 

Such  was  the  husbandry  of  Rome  when  Rome 
was  mistress  of  the  world  ;  and  it  was  to  this  illus- 
trious period  that  Pliny  alluded,  when,  speaking  of 
the  ancient  fertility  of  the  soil,  he  remarked,  "  that 
the  earth  took  pleasure  in  being  cultivated  by  the 
hands  of  men  crowned  with  laurels  and  decorated 
with  triumphal  honours." 

*  Of  this  last  there  were  three  kinds,  neither  of  which  is  now 
cultivated. 

f  The  lupinus  albus  of  Linnaeus  :  "  many  other  vegetables 
are  used  for  this  purpose,  particularly  the  bean,  but  they  do  not 
answer  as  well  as  the  lupine ;  when  this  is  heated  in  an  oven, 
and  then  buried,  it  forms  the  most  powerful  of  all  manures." — 
T.  C.  L.  Simonde.  TaMeau  de  V Agriculture  Toscane, 
2 


12  AGRICULTURE  : 

If  we  pause  for  a  moment  to  glance  at  the  civil 
institutions  of  this  wonderful  people,  we  discover 
how  soon  and  how  deeply  it  entered  into  their  poli- 
cy, not  merely  to  promote,  but  to  dignify  agricul- 
ture and  its  professors.*  When,  Cicero  said  that 
"nothing  in  this  world  was  better,  more  useful, 
more  agreeable,  more  worthy  of  a  free  man  than 
agriculture,"!  he  pronounced  not  only  his  own  opin- 
ion, but  the  public  judgment  of  his  age  and  nation. 
Were  troops  to  be  raised  for  the  defence  of  the  re- 
public, the  iribus  ruslicus — the  country  or  farming 
class — was  the  privileged  nursery  of  the  legion.f 
Did  exigencies  of  state  require  a  general  or  dictator, 
he  was  taken  from  the  plough.  Were  his  services 
to  be  rewarded,  this  was  done,  not  with  ribands  or 
gold,  but  by  a  donation  of  land.§ 

With  such  support  from  public  opinion,  it  was 
not  to  be  supposed  that  the  laws  would  be  either 
adverse  or  indifferent  to  this  branch  of  industry  ;  we 
accordingly  find  the  utmost  security  given  to  the 
labours  of  the  husbandman  ;||  no  legislative  inter- 
position between  the  seller  and  buyer;  neither 
forced  sales  nor  limitation  of  prices,  and  a  sacred- 
ness  of  boundaries  never  disturbed  ;^f  fairs  and  mar- 
kets multiplied  and  protected  against  invasion  01 
interruption,**  and  highways  leading  to  these  every- 
where established,  and  of  a  character  to  call  forth 
the  highest  praise  and  admiration. |f 

*  Tanus  and  Numa  were  deified  for  services  rendered  to  ag- 
riculture. 

f  Cicero  de  Officiis,  1.  ii. 

j  This  continued  till  the  time  of  Marius. 

t)  As  much  as  he  could  plough  in  a  day. 

||  To  cut  or  destroy  in  the  night  the  crop  of  his  neighbour,  sub- 
lected  the  Roman  to  death. 

1f  Terminus  was  among  their  gods. . 

**  Assemblies  of  the  people  on  days  designated  for  fairs,  and 
on  subjects  other  than  those  of  trade,  were  not  lawful. 

•ft  The  Appian  Way  yet  remains  the  wonder  and  reproach  of 
modern  times. 


STATE    OF    AGRICULTURE    IN    EUROPE.        13 

Nor  were  these  regulations  confined  to  the  proper 
territory  of  Rome  ;  what  of  her  own  policy  was 
good,  she  communicated  to  her  neighbours ;  wha4 
of  theirs  was  better,  she  adopted  and  practised  her- 
self. Her  arts  and  arms  were  therefore  constant 
companions :  wherever  her  legions  marched,  her 
knowledge,  practices,  and  implements  followed  ; 
and  it  is  to  these  we  are  to  look  for  the  foundation 
of  modern  agriculture  in  Italy,  France,  Spain,  &c. 


CHAPTER  II. 

OP  THE  ACTUAL  STATE  OF  AGRICULTURE  IN  EUROPE. 

THIS  is  very  different  in  different  states,  and  even 
in  different  parts  of  the  same  state :  its  greater  or 
less  degree  of  perfection  depending  on  causes  phys- 
ical or  political,  or  both.  Where  a  state,  or  part 
of  a  state,  from  soil,  climate,  manners,  or  geographi- 
cal position,  draws  its  principal  subsistence  from  the 
fishery  or  the  chase,  as  in  the  more  northern  parts 
of  Europe,*  agriculture  will  not  succeed  ;  when  a 
state  is  from  any  cause  both  essentially  maritime 
or  manufacturing,  as  in  England,!  or  principally 

*  Is  not  the  author  somewhat  at  fault  here  T  Norway  is  the 
only  country  in  the  north  of  Europe  where  the  business  of  fish- 
ing is  extensively  followed,  and  it  is  only  in  the  portions  of  that 
continent,  so  far  north  as  to  be  unfitted  by  climate  for  agricul- 
ture, that  wild  animals  abound. 

+  The  agricultural  condition  of  Great  Britain,  and  particularly 
of  Scotland  and  of  Prussia,  has  been  greatly  changed  and  im- 
proved within  the  last  20  years ;  and  even  Prussia  has  apparently 
commenced  in  earnest  in  enlightening  her  agriculture,  by  estab- 
lishing schools  of  scientific  and  practical  instruction.  The  great 
Prussian  school  of  Moegelier,  under  the  direction  of  Von  Thaer, 


14  AGRICULTURE. 

manufacturing,  as  in  Prussia  ;*  where  public  opin- 
ion has  degraded  manual  labor,  as  in  Spain,  Portu- 
gal, and  the  Papal  territory ;  or  where  laws  villa- 
mze  it,  as  in  Russia,  Prussia,  Poland,  Hungary,  &c., 
&c.,  it  is  in  vain  to  expect  pre-eminent  agriculture. 
These  principles  will  receive  illustration  as  we  go 
along. 

I.  In  the  Campania  of  Rome,  where,  in  the  time 
of  Pliny,  were  counted  twenty-three  cities,  the  trav- 
eller is  now  astonished  and  depressed  at  the  silence 
and  desolation  that  surround  him.  Even  from  Rome 
to  Trescati  [four  leagues  of  road  the  most  frequent- 
ed], we  find  only  an  arid  plain,  without  trees,  with- 
out meadows  natural  or  artificial,  and  without  villa- 
ges or  other  habitation  of  man  !  Yet  is  this  wretch- 
edness not  the  fault  of  soil  or  climate,  which,  with 
little  alteration,!  continue  to  be  what  they  were  in 
the  days  of  Augustus.  "  Man  is  the  only  growth  that 
dwindles  here,"  and  to  his  deficient  or  ill-directed  in- 
dustry are  owing  all  the  calamities  of  the  scene. J 

one  of  the  most  enlightened  agriculturists  of  the  age,  aided  by 
the  instruction  in  agriculture  which  is  now  given  in  the  normal 
and  primary  schools  of  that  kingdom,  has  already  produced  a 
wonderful  improvement  in  Prussian  agriculture.  The  march  of 
improvement  in  Scotch  husbandry,  in  the  present  century,  has 
probably  not  been  surpassed  in  any  country  ;  while  in  England, 
at  no  time  has  there  been  greater  or  more  wisely  directed  efforts 
for  improvement  than  within  the  last  few  years.  Instead  of 
manufactures  depressing,  it  would  seem  that  they  now  operate 
as  the  strongest  stimulant  to  agricultural  improvement,  by  of 
fering  a  ready  home-market  for  the  surplus  products  of  the  soil, 
both  of  raw  materials  and  provisions.  This  also  appears  to  be 
true  with  regard  to  our  country. — J.  B. 

•  *  Although  great  attention  has  been  given  to  manufactures  in 
Prussia  within  the  last  half  century,  still  it  is  too  much  to  say 
that  she  is  "principally  manufacturing."  Agriculture  is  un 
doubtedly,  by  far,  the  most  important  interest. 

t  The  climate  of  Italy  is  now  warmer  than  it  was  in  the  Au- 
gustan age,  which  Buffon  ascribes  to  the  draining  of  great  tracts 
of  swampy  land  in  Germany. 

J  "  Un  Romain  meme  le  plus  indigent  rougiroit  de  cultiver  la 
terre." — Bosc.  The  poorest  Koman  would  blush  to  cultivate  the 
earth 


STATE    OF    AGRICULTURE    IN    EUROPE.        15 

Instead  of  devoting  themselves  to  the  hardy  and 
masculine  labours  of  the  field,  the  successors  of  Cato 
and  of  Pliny  are  employed  in  fabricating  sacred  vases, 
hair-powder  and  pomatums,  artificial  pearls,  fiddle- 
strings,  embroidered  gloves,  and  religious  relics !  They 
are  also  great  collectors  of  pictures,  statues,  and 
medals — "dirty  gods  and  coins" — and  find  an  ample 
reward  in  the  ignorance  and  credulity  of  those  who 
buy  them.  . 

II.  How  different  from  this  picture  is  that  of  Tus- 
cany !  where  the  soil,  though  less  fertile,*  is  covered 
with  grain,  with  vines,  and  with  cattle ;  and  where 
a  surface  of  1200  square  leagues  subsists  a  popula- 
tion of  950,000  inhabitants,  of  which  80,000  are  ag- 
riculturists, f  It  may  amuse,  if  it  does  not  instruct, 
the  reader,  to  offer  a  few  details  of  a  husbandry 
among  the  most  distinguished  of  the  present  age. 
The  plough  of  northern  Europe,  like  that  of  this 
country,  has  the  power  of  a  wedge,  and  acts  hori- 
zontally ;  that  of  Tuscany  has  the  same  direction, 
but  a  very  different  form.  With  the  outline  of  a 
shovel,  it  consists  of  two  inclined  planes  sloping 
from  the  centre,  and  forming  a  gutter  and  two  ridg- 
es. This  instrument  is  particularly  adapted  to  the 
loose  and  friable  texture  of  the  soil.  A  second 
plough  of  the  same  shape,  but  of  smaller  size,  fol- 
lows that  already  described,  and,  with  the  aid  of  the 
hoe  and  the  spade,!  throws  the  earth,  already  bro- 

*  "  Two  thirds  of  Tuscany  consists  of  mountains."  Vol.  viii., 
p.  232,  Geographique  Mathematique  et  physique.  See  also  Forsy th's 
remarks,  p.  80,  where  are  detailed  the  principal  causes  of  her 
prosperity.  "  Leopold,"  says  he,  "  in  selling  the  crown  lands, 
studiously  divided  large  tracts  of  rich  but  neglected  land  into 
small  properties.  His  favourite  plan  of  encouraging  agriculture 
consisted,  not  in  boards,  societies,  and  premiums,  but  in  giving  the 
labourer  a  security  and  interest  in  the  soil,  in  multiplying  small  free- 
holds, in  extending  the  livelli  or  life  leases,"  &c.,  &c. 

t  Tuscany,  including  the  islands  belonging  to  it.  is  stated  to 
have  a  superficial  area  of  about  8000  square  miles,  and,  by  the 
last  census,  somewhat  more  than  1,300,000  inhabitants. 

t  It  is  among  the  most  important  covenants  of  a  Tuscan  .ease, 


16  AGRICULTURE. 

ken  and  pulverized,  into  four-feet  ridges  or  beds, 
on  which  the  crop  is  sown.  The  furrows  answer  a 
threefold  purpose  ;  they  drain  the  beds  of  excessive 
moisture,  ventilate  the  growing  crops,  and  supply 
paths  for  the  weeders. 

The  rotation  of  crops  employs  two  periods  of  dif- 
ferent length ;  the  one  of  three,  the  other  of  five 
years.  In  the  rotation  of  three  years  the  ground 
is  sown  five  times,  and  in  that  of  four  years  seven 
times,  as  follows : 

1st  year,  wheat,  and,  after  wheat,  lupines  : 
2d     do.    wheat,  and,  after  wheat,  turnips  : 
3d     do.    Indian  corn  or  millet. 
1st  year,  wheat,  and,  after  wheat,  beans  : 
2d    do.    wheat,  and,  after  wheat,  lupines : 
3d    do.    wheat,  and,  after  wheat,  lupinella :  [an- 
nual clover]. 
4th  do.    Indian  corn  or  millet. 

In  the  Syanese  Maremna,  where  the  lands  want 
neither  repose  nor  manure,  the  constant  alternation 
is  hemp  and  wheat,  and  the  produce  of  the  latter  is 
often  twenty-four  bushels  threshed  for  one  sown. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  course  of  crops,  that  the 
principal  object  of  Tuscan  agriculture  is  wheat ;  of 
which  they  have  two  species,  the  one  bald,  the  other 
bearded ;  both  larger  than  the  corresponding  species 
in  other  countries  of  Europe ;  convertible  into  ex- 
cellent bread  and  pastes,  and  probably  but  varieties 
of  that  Sicilian  family  which  Pliny  describes  as 
yielding  "  most  flour  and  least  bran,  and  suffering  no 
degradation  from  time.'"  It  is  harvested  about  the 
middle  of  June,  and,  when  the  grain  crop  is  secured, 
the  ploughing  for  the  second  or  forage  crop  begins  ; 
which,  besides  lupines,  lupinella,  and  beans,  often 
consists  of  a  mixture  of  lupines,  turnips,  and  flax. 
The  lupines  ripen  first,  and  are  gathered  in  autumn  ; 

that  one  third  of  the  ground  shajl  be  actually  worked  with  a 
spade. 


STATE    OF    AGRICULTURE    IN    EUROPE.       17 

the  turnips  are  drawn  in  the  winter,  and  the  flax  in 
the  spring. 

Besides  the  application  of  ordinary  manures,  the 
lupine  is  ploughed  down  when  in  flower ;  a  practice 
that  began  with  the  Romans  :  Columella  says,  "of 
all  leguminous  vegetables,  the  lupine  is  that  which 
most  merits  attention,  because  it  costs  least,  employs 
least  time,  and  furnishes  an  excellent  manure."  The 
culture  of  this  vegetable  is  different,  according  to 
the  purposes  for  which  it  is  raised;  if  for  grain,  the 
ground  has  two  ploughings  and  twenty-five  pounds 
weight  of  seed  to  a  square  of  a  hundred  toises  [about 
640  feet] :  if  for  manure,  one  ploughing  is  sufficient. 
Like  our  buckwheat,  its  vegetation  is  quick  and  its 
growth  rapid ;  whence  the  farther  advantage  of  sup- 
pressing, and  even  of  destroying,  the  weeds  that 
would  have  infested  any  other  crop.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Florence,  they  are  in  the  practice  of 
burning  the  soil;  which  they  do  by  digging  holes, 
filling  them  with  fagots,  and  raising  the  earth  into 
mounds  over  them.  The  fagots  are  then  inflamed 
and  burned,  and  with  them  the  incumbent  earth, 
which  is  afterward  scattered,  so  as  to  give  to  the 
whole  field  the  same  preparation. 

III.  "  The  countries,"  says  Arthur  Young,  "  the 
most  rich  and  flourishing  of  Europe,  in  proportion 
to  their  extent,  are  probably  Piedmont  and  the  Mi- 
lanese. We  there  meet  all  the  signs  of  prosperity, 
an  active  and  well-conditioned  population,  great  ex- 
ertions, considerable  interior  consumption,  superb 
roads,  many  opulent  towns,  a  ready  and  abundant 
circulation,  the  interest  of  money  low,  the  price  of 
labour  high;  in  one  word,  it  is  impossible  to  cite  a 
single  fact  that  shows  that  Manchester,  Birming- 
ham, Rouen,  and  Lyons,  are  in  a  condition  equally 
prosperous  as  the  whole  of  these  duchies."  Their 
population  is  stated  at  "  1,114,000,  and  the  territory 
at  little  more  than  two  millions  of  arpons  (acres). 
Wheat,  rye,  Indian  corn,  flax,  and  hemp,  the  vine 


18  AGRICULTURE. 

and  the  olive,  the  caper  and  the  cotton-tree,  with 
all  kinds  of  garden  fruits  and  vegetables,  are  culti- 
vated here  :  the  soil  knows  no  repose,  and  much  of 
it  yields  annually  and  uniformly  two  crops  of  grain 
or  three  of  grass."*  These  are  the  miracles  of  ir- 
rigation ;  not  a  drop  of  water  is  lost.  Besides  the 
permanent  supplies  furnished  from  lakes,  ponds, 
rivers,  creeks,  and  springs,  even  the  winter  torrent 
and  summer  shower  are  everywhere  intercepted  by 
drains  and  led  to  reservoirs,  whence  they  are  dis- 
tributed at  will  to  the  neighbouring  grounds. 

In  1770  an  agricultural  school  was  established  at 
Milan,  consisting  of  220  boys,  who  were  instructed 
in  theoretical  and  practical  husbandry.  This  insti- 
tution has  escaped  the  notice  of  travellers  ;  and  we 
are  unable  to  say  whether  it  has  or  has  not  fulfilled 
the  intentions  of  its  projectors.! 

IV.  Switzerland  has  1444  square  leagues  of  sur- 
face,;}: and  presents  an  assemblage  of  mountains, 
one  rising  above  another,  until  the  summits  are  lost 
in  masses  of  snow  and  ice,  which  never  melt.  This 
short  description  sufficiently  indicates  the  character 
of  both  the  soil  and  the  climate ;  yet,  unpropitious  as 
these  are,  we  find  a  population  of  1242  inhabitants 
to  each  square  league !  "  This  is,  .perhaps,  the 
country  of  the  world  which  presents  the  most  hap- 
py effects  of  an  industry  always  active  and  per- 
severing. The  traveller  who  climbs  her  mountains 
is  struck  with  admiration  when  he  beholds  vine- 
yards and  rich  pastures  in  those  places  which  be- 
fore appeared  naked  and  barren  rocks.  The  traces 

*  Geographique  Mathematique,  &c.,  article  Italic. 

•\  Since  this  treatise  was  written,  we  have  notice  of  the  estab- 
lisnment  of  agricultural  schools  in  Prussia,  France,  Ireland, 
Russia,  and  in  most  of  the  German  States ;  and  a  school,  upon 
a  very  broad  and  liberal  basis,  is  in  contemplation  in  England. 
— J.  B. 

t  The  superficial  area  of  Switzerland,  as  its  boundaries  were 
established  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  has  been  differently  es- 
timated from  14,000  to  18,000  square  miles. 


STATE    OF    AGRICULTURE    IN    EUROPE.       19 

of  the  plough  are  perceived  on  the  border  of  pre- 
cipices where  the  most  savage  animals  do  not  pass 
without  danger ;  in  one  word,  the  inhabitants  appear 
to  have  conquered  all  obstacles,  whether  arising 
from  soil,  position,  or  climate,  and  to  have  drawn 
abundance  from  a  territory  condemned  by  nature  to 
perpetual  sterility."* 

V.  The  classical  reader  will  remember  that  Spain 
was  the  garden  of  the  Hesperides  of  the  Roman 
writers ;  by  which  was  meant  the  combinations  of 
a  fine  climate,  a  rich  soil,  and  an  active,  intelligent 
agriculture.  To  this  state  of  things  even  the  em- 
piretof  the  Goths  was  not  fatal  ;f  and  that  of  the 
Moors  rendered  it  still  more  distinguished.  In  their 
hands  the  plains  of  Valentia  were  cultivated  through- 
out, with  the  utmost  care  and  skill ;  and  where  their 
wheels,  reservoirs,  and  drains  of  irrigation  yet  re- 
main, the  soil  continues  to  yield  the  richest  and 
most  abundant  products.  In  Catalonia,  Navarre, 
Galitia,  and  the  Asturias,  many  species  of  the  an- 
cient agriculture  are  yet  in  vigour,  because  "  the 
leases  are  long,  and  the  landlord  cannot  capriciously 
violate  them."-1  The  same  causes  are  followed  by  the 
same  effects  in  the  three  districts  of  Biscaya,  Gui- 
poscoa,  and  Alava.  "  In  running  over  these,  every- 
thing one  finds  is  animated  by  the  presence  of  lib- 
erty and  industry ;  nothing  can  be  more  charming 
than  the  coasts,  nothing  more  attractive  than  the 
culture  of  the  valleys.  Throughout  the  30  leagues 
that  separate  Bedassos  from  Vittoria,  every  quarter 
of  an  hour  we  discover  some  well-built  village  or 
comfortable  cottage. "J 

*  Geographique  •Mathematique,  article  Helvetia. 

t  It  appears  from  Varro,  De  re  rustica,  and  the  letters  of  Cas- 
siodonis,  that  the  Goths  introduced  into  Spain  the  subterranean 
granaries  called  sillos,  and  the  art  of  irrigation.  The  former  are 
now  exclusively  used  in  Tuscany  ;  and  Cato's  precept,  "  Prata 
irrigua,"  &c.,  shows  whence  their  knowledge  of  the  latter  was 
derive! 

\  Burgoing's  Modern  Spain,  vol.  i. 


20  AGRICULTURE. 

How  different  is  the  aspect  of  the  other  provinces ! 
In  these  not  more  than  two  thirds  of  the  earth  are 
cultivated;  and  "  it  is  not  uncommon  to  travel  eight 
and  ten  leagues  together  without  finding  a  trace  of 
human  industry.  In  the  district  of  Badejoz  alone 
is  a  desert  twenty-six  leagues  in  length  and  twelve 
in  breadth.*  Ten  of  the  fourteen  leagues  that  trav- 
erse the  duchy  of  Medina  Sidonia  consist  alto- 
gether of  pasturage.  There  is  nowhere  a  vestige 
of  man ;  not  an  orchard,  not  a  garden,  not  a  ditch, 
not  a  cottage  to  be  seen !  The  great  proprietor  ap- 
pears to  reign,  like  the  lion  in  the  desert,  repulsing 
by  his  roaring  all  who  would  approach  him.  *But, 
instead  of  human  colonies,  we  encounter  troops  of 
horned  cattle  and  of  mares,  wandering,  self-directed, 
over  plains  to  which  the  eye  can  discover  no  bound- 
ary or  barrier,  and  which  brings  to  one's  recollec- 
tion the  days  when  the  beasts  shared  with  man  the 
empire  of  the  earth. "f 

"  Even  when  the  plough  is  used,  it  is  little  more 
than  a  great  knife  fastened  to  a  stick,  that  just 
scratches  the  surface.  The  grain  is  threshed  by 
horses  or  mules  driven  over  it,  or  by  means  of  a 
plank  studded  with  nails  or  flint  stones,  and  drawn 
across  it.J  With  even  this  miserable  culture,  the 
land  in  Andalusia  yields  considerable  crops  ;  yet  are 
the  inhabitants  too  lazy  or  too  few  to  gather  them 
together-!  This  is  done  by  Galiegos,  who  are  the 

*  Horde's  Itineraire  de  1'Espagne,  vol.  iv.,  p.  30. 

f  Burgoing.  Spam  has  been  long  renowned  for  its  horses. 
The  Romans,  in  settling  their  pedigree  and  illustrating  their 
swiftness,  called  them  "  the  children  of  the  winds." 

|  Swinburne's  Travels,  vol.  i.  A  Spanish  peasant,  who  has 
earned  or  begged  enough  for  the  wants  of  the  day,  will  refuse  to 
earn  more,  even  by  running  an  errand.  Striking  as  this  fact  is, 
t.  does  not  so  well  illustrate  Spanish  indolence  as  the  following 
anecdote  from  the  same  pen  :  In  the  great  sedition  in  Madrid, 
which  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  king  and  the  disgrace  of  his 
minister  (the  Marquis  des  Suillas),  and  in  its  most  fervid  mo- 
ments, both  parties  retired  about  dinner-time  to  take  their  nap 


STATE    OF    AGRICULTURE    IN    EUROPE.       21 

labourers  of  Spain."  We  need  scarcely  remark, 
that  in  a  state  of  agriculture  like  this,  the  peasantry 
cannot  be  either  well  fed  or  well  clothed.  "  The 
mountaineers  live  principally  upon  roasted  acorns 
and  goat's  milk,  and  those  of  the  plain  (from  Barce- 
lona to  Malaga)  on  bread  steeped  in  oil,  and  occa- 
sionally seasoned  with  vinegar."* 

It  is  wide  of  our  subject  to  examine  the  causes 
of  the  degradation  which  marks  the  agriculture  of 
Spain.  Well-informed  writers  have  ascribed  it  to 
the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  and  Jews,  to  the  weight 
of  taxes  and  imposts,  to  the  mesta  or  common  right 
of  pasturage,  to  the  discovery  of  America  and  its 
consequences,  to  the  effect  of  climate,  and  the  ill- 
judged  charity  of  bishops  and  convents,  but  princi- 
pally to  the  great  manorial  grants  and  unequal  divis- 
ion of  the  soil  which  followed  the  conquest.  "We 
often  find  six,  eight,  ten,  and  even  fifteen  leagues  of 
extent  belonging  to  one  master.  The  nobility  and 
clergy  possess  nearly  the  whole  country.  One 
third  of  Spain  belongs  to  the  families  of  Medina 
Celi,  D'Alba,  De  1'Infantado,  D'Aceda,  and  to  the 
archbishops,  bishops,  and  chapters  of  Toledo,  Com- 
postella,Valentia,  Seville,  and  Murcia.  A  great  pro- 
portion of  these  lands  remain  untilled  and  untenant- 
ed,  and  those  which  are  let  in  corlijo  or  farms  are 
double  or  treble  the  quantity  that  can  be  occupied 
in  tillage."! 

VI.  The  agriculture  of  Portugal  has  been  sub- 
jected to  the  same  evils  as  that  of  Spain,  to  which 
may  be  superadded  her  connexion  with  Great  Brit- 
ain, under  whose  policy  she  has  become  a  raiser 
of  fruit  instead  of  grain. 

VII.  France  is  probably  the  country  of  Europe 

or  miridiana,  after  which  they  returned  to  the  combat  with  new 
vigour  and  enraged  fury.  If  habits  can  thus  control  the  passions, 
to  what  important  uses  might  not  a  wise  legislation  t'irn  them? 

*  See  preceding  note. 

f  Le  Horde's  Itineraire  de  PEspagne,  vol.  i. 


22  AGRICULTURE. 

which  most  unites  the  great  desiderata  of  an  ex- 
tended and  profitable  agriculture,  fertility  of  soil, 
mildness  of  climate,  a  dense  population,  an  en- 
lightened government,  and  facility  of  exportation.* 
Within  her  ancient  limits,  she  boasts  a  surface  of 
more  than  one  hundred  and  fifteen  millions  of  ar- 
pens,  and  a  population  of  twenty-two  millions  of 
inhabitants.!  The  following  tables  will  show,  in  a 
compressed  form,  the  nature  of  her  soil  and  the 
uses  to  which  it  is  put  :J 

GEOLOGICAL    TABLE. 

Arpens  or  Acres. 

Alluvial  and  other  rich  soil        .        .        .  26,159,340 

Chalky  do 13,268.911 

Gravelly  do 3,261,826 

Stony  do 18,128,660 

Sandy  do 7,553,956 

Stratum  of  clay,  with  a  light  covering  of 

sand,  called  landes      ....  21,879,120 

Granitic  and  other  mountains    .        .        .  25,261,946 

AGRICULTURAL   TABLE. 

Arable  land 63,600,000 

Vineyards           ......  4,764,960 

Woods 15,931,850 

Natural  meadows 5,464  800 

Artificial  meadows 6,332, i  00 

Lakes,  marshes,  wastes    ....  19,400,049 

Total 115,493,759 

From  the  average  of  a  number  of  statistical  tables 

*  The  natural  advantages  of  France  as  to  soil,  climate,  &c. 
are  doubtless  great ;  and  her  agriculture,  and  the  condition  of 
her  rural  population,  have  been  much  improved  since  the  revo- 
lution ;  still,  as  a  whole,  her  soil  is  by  no  means  as  well  culti- 
vated as  that  of  Belgium,  Tuscany,  England,  Scotland,  and, 
probably,  some  parts  of  Germany. 

t  The  population  of  France,  by  the  last  enumeration,  was 
about  32,000,000. 

J  See  Geographique,  &c.,  vol.  vi.,  art.  France,  p.  13,  and 
Young's  Tour  through  France. 


STATE    OF   AGRICULTURE    IN    EUROPE.       23 

made  by  the  Abbe  D'Expillyt  and  others,  it  appears 
that  in  1777  the  agriculture  of  France  was  not  only 
sufficient  for  the  subsistence  of  its  inhabitants,  but 
produced  a  surplus  for  exportation;*  and  though  it 
be  universally  admitted  that  her  condition  in  this 
respect  is  not  less  prosperous  now  than  it  was  then^ 
still  it  cannot  be  dissembled  that  her  husbandry  has 
many  defects : 

1.  A  supposed  resemblance  between  the  earth 
and  animals  gave  rise  to  fallows  :  because  men  and 
horses  required  repose  after  labour,  it  was  supposed 
that,  after  cropping,  the  earth  also  required  it.    Faith- 
ful to  this  absurd  analogy,  the  French  landlord  binds 
down  his  tenant  by  lease  not  to  crop  the  soil  more 
than  three  years  out  of  four ;  which,  in  effect,  is  to 
consign  to  barrenness  or  weeds  one  fourth  of  the 
whole  arable  land  of  France  yearly  ! 

2.  There  is  not  a  sufficiently  fixed  or  steady  pro- 
portion between  arable  and  pasture  land.     The  pro- 
duction of  grain  is  the  great  object  of  culture,  often 
with  too  little  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
and  generally  without  any  to   its   improvements. 
"Where  pasturage  is  scanty,  where  natural  mead- 
ows are  bad,  where  artificial  are  rare,  and  root  hus- 
bandry little  extended,  cattle  cannot  be  either  nu- 
merous or  well-conditioned ;  and  as  without  these 

*  The  products  of  agricultural  labour  were,  in  these  tables, 
stated  at  1 14,552,000  L.  T.  Those  of  manufacturing  labour  at 
128,015,000. 

i  The  effects  of  the  revolution  of  1789  on  agriculture  are  no 
longer  doubtful.  The  suppression  of  tithes,  of  the  exclusivt 
privilege,  of  the  chase,  of  every  species  of  corvee  (labour  perform- 
ed by  tenants  for  landlords),  of  taxes  or  rents,  and  of  rights  of 
commonage,  was  among  these  effects  ;  and  if  lo  these  we  add  the 
division  of  the  great  landed  estates  of  the  nobility  and  clergy,  there 
can  no  longer  be  any  skepticism  on  this  point.  No  truth  is  bet- 
ter established  than  the  advantage  of  small  farms  over  great,  so 
far  as  the  public  is  concerned.  The  Roman  latifundia  (military 
grants)  destroyed  Roman  agriculture. 


24  AGRICULTURE. 

there  can  be  no  manure,  so  without  manure  there 
can  be  no  abundance."* 

3.  The   land   is   generally    worked   by  farmers 
hired  for  that  purpose,  or  by  renters  on  short  leases  ;\ 
which  in  neither  case  betters  the  condition  of  the 
soil ;  the  one  having  no  interest  in  improvements, 
and  the  other  too  small  a  one  to  justify  any  ex- 
pense in  making  them. 

4.  A  good  rotation  system,  adapted  to  the  soil  and 
climate,  is  not  absolutely  unknown,  and  may  be 
found  even  in  whole  districts  (as  in  French  Flan- 
ders), but  much  too  rarely.     We  have  seen  wheat 
and  fallows  alternating  for  years,  and  wheat  and  rye, 
hemp  and  rye,  and  many  others  equally  ridiculous. 

5.  To  the  eye,  more  than  one  half  of  France  is  a 
common,  without  fences  of  any  kind,  excepting  gar- 
den or  park  walls.     Can  there  be  order,  economy, 
or  security  under  such  circumstances  ?     Can  the 
police  and  the  gens  d'armes  be  sufficient  substitutes  ? 

VIII.  Holland,  though  essentially  commercial, 
has,  from  causes  rarely  occurring,  become  also 
highly  agricultural.  To  the  descendants  of  Dutch- 
men, the  following  description  of  her  industry,  in 
this  respect,  cannot  but  be  acceptable.  It  is  from 
the  pen  of  an  excellent  judge  and  faithful  narrator.J 

*  French  agriculture  has  undergone  great  changes  since  Her- 
bin  wrote.  The,  large  estates  have  been  mostly  cut  up  into 
small  ones  by  the  events  of  the  revolution,  and  are  now  farmed 
by  small  proprietors  :  the  culture  of  the  sugar-beet,  and  the  al- 
ternation of  crops,  have  succeeded  the  old  system  of  culture  ; 
cattle  are  consequently  more  numerous  and  better  conditioned  ; 
a  national  central  agricultural  society,  with  numerous  auxiliary 
societies,  has  been  established ;  men  of  science  have  applied 
their  learning  to  the  improvement  of  the  soil,  and  the  govern- 
ment has  been  actively  engaged  in  encouraging  this  great  branch 
of  national  industry,  by  giving  liberal  bounties  to  those  who  dis- 
tinguish themselves  in  making  improvements. — J.  B. 

t  Herbin's  Statistique  general  de  la  France,  vol.  i.,  Introduc- 
tion. 

J  M.  Yvart,  Professor  of  Agriculture  at  Elfort.  See  his  In- 
troductory Address  to  his  Class  in  1806. 


STATE    OF    AGRICULTURE    IN    EUROPE.       25 

"  Their  rotation  of  crops  always  begins  with  the 
culture  either  of  some  leguminous  plant  or  profita- 
ble root,  and  generally  with  the  potato,  as  the  best 
preparative  of  the  ground.  Whatever  may  be  the 
grain  which  follows,  whether  wheat,  rye,  &c.,  &c., 
it  is  generally  sown  with  red  clover ;  and,  where  it  is 
not,  the  stubble  is  ploughed  in  immediately  after 
harvest,  and  a  crop  of  turnips  taken,  and  either  con- 
sumed on  the  ground  or  housed  for  the  winter.  A 
single  department  (that  of  Zealand)  obtains,  by  the 
culture  of  madder  alone,  an  annual  profit  of  six  mill- 
ions of  florins,  nearly  three  millions  of  dollars  ; 
while  that  of  Brabant  boasts  its  twenty  thousand 
beehives ;  in  a  word,  this  commendable  nation, 
upon  an  extent  of  surface  not  exceeding  seventeen 
hundred  square  leagues  (the  greater  part  of  which 
has  been  redeemed  from  the  ocean),  counts  two 
hundred  and  forty-three  thousand  horses,  seven 
hundred  and  sixty  thousand  horn  cattle,  about  a  mill- 
ion of  sheep,  from  ten  to  twelve  thousand  goats, 
four  hundred  and  eighty-nine  thousand  hogs,  and 
about  three  millions  of  poultry  of  every  species. 
Their  stock  of  manure  is  necessarily  great,  and  is 
both  well  understood  and  well  managed." 

IX.  Physical  and  moral  causes  operate  against 
the  existence  of  a  productive  agriculture  in  Den- 
mark and  Sweden;  and  these  are,  severity  of  cli- 
mate, poverty  of  soil,  and  vassalage  of  tenants.* 
Their  resources  are  also  alike,  and  exist  principally 
in  manufactures  and  commerce,  and  in  mines,  for- 
ests, and  fisheries.!  The  former  boasts  fine  pas- 
turage and  cattle  in  Holstein. 

*  To  give  to  despotism  the  air  of  freedom,  the  serfs  of  the 
crown  in  Denmark  were  liberated  at  the  revolution,  but  the  ex 
ample  was  neither  approved  nor  followed. 

t  These  remarks  as  to  climate,  soil,  and  productions,  are  ap- 
plicable to  Sweden,  but  not  to  Denmark.  The  climate  of  the 
latter  country,  in  consequence  of  the  insular  situation  of  a  large 
part  of  it,  is  by  no  means  as  severe  as  its  latitude  might  seem  to 
indicate.  The  writer  of  this  passed  the  winter  of  1812  at  Co 


26  AGRICULTURE. 

X.  Under  the  common  name  of  Germany  we  in- 
clude Prussia,  Saxony,  Austria,  Wurtemburg,  and 
Bavaria,  and  shall  say  a  few  w'ords  of  each  calcu- 
lated to  give  a  general  idea  of  their  husbandry.  It 
was  not  to  be  expected  that  the  great  Frederic  of 
Prussia  (so  devoted  to  national  glory  and  strength) 
would  disregard  the  interests  of  agriculture  ;  and 
the  less  so,  as  in  theory  he  considered  it  "  Les  ma- 
melles  de  Vital"  the  paps  of  the  state.  We  accord- 
ingly find  him  employed  in  draining  marshes  of 
great  extent,*  in  filling  them  with  industrious  colo- 
nists, and  in  converting  barren  sands  into  fertile 
fields,  by  placing  his  capital  in  the  midst  of  them. 
But,  among  these  good  works,  he  forgot  that  the 
hands  of  the  labourer,  to  be  efficient,  must  be  free  ;  he 
found  the  peasants  slaves,  and  left  them  such. 

The  Saxon  peasant,  on  the  other  hand,  is  free, 
and  protected  by  the  laws ;  he  holds  his  farm  on 
lease,  which  he  sells  or  transmits  to  his  children  at 
will :  and  this  is  the  principal  cause  of  the  flourish- 
ing state  of  Saxon  agriculture.  In  Lusatia,  a  differ- 
ent legislation  produces  different  effects ;  but,  for 
some  years  past,  the  government  and  great  proprie- 
tors have  concurred  in  changing  the  vassalage  of  the 
peasants  into  a  mild  and  salutary  dependance.  Sax- 
ony is  remarkable  for  its  grain  products,  and  Lusa- 
tia for  its  stock ;  the  latter  counts  four  hundred 
thousand  head  of  sheep  of  the  Merino  race. 

Geographers  give  to  Austria  and  her  dependan- 
cies  1065  leagues  in  circumference.  In  a  surface 
of  this  extent  there  is  necessarily  a  great  variety, 
as  well  of  climate  as  of  soil ;  but,  in  general,  both 

penhagen,  and  did  not  at  any  lime  see  sufficient  snow  on  the 
ground  to  make  good  sleighing.  Much  of  the  soil  of  Denmark 
is  highly  productive  in  wheat,  rye,  pasturage,  &c.  She  has 
few  manufactures,  or  mines,  or  forests,  and,  since  her  separation 
from  Norway,  no  extensive  fisheries. 

*  In  the  Dollnrt,  what  was  lost  by  the  sea  was  regained,  and 
the  marshes  on  the  Netz  and  the  Worth,  at  Friedb'ers  and  in 
Pnmerania,  were  drained,  and  the  country  rendered  habitable. 


STATE  OF  AGRICULTURE  IN  EUROPE.    27 

are  favourable  to  agriculture.  "  In  the  districts  of 
the  Inn,  of  Lower  Stiria,  of  Istria,  and  of  Carniola, 
the  land  is  of  good  quality,  well  cultivated,  and  very 
productive.  In  the  last  they  have  two  crops  in  the 
year ;  sowing  buckwheat  on  wheat  or  rye  stub- 
ble, and  millet  on  that  of  hemp  and  flax.  They 
everywhere  cultivate  Indian  corn,  and  in  Stiria  (as 
in  Virginia)  it  forms  the  ordinary  bread  of  the  coun- 
try." In  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Galitia,*  the  soil  is 
uncommonly  rich,  and,  under  proper  management, 
would  be  very  productive.  Austrian  Silesia  is  less 
fitted  for  the  production  of  grain,  but  excels  in  for- 
age and  cattle.  Hungary,  Transylvania,  and  Croa- 
tia abound  in  every  species  of  agricultural  produce. 
Their  flocks  and  pasturage  are  not  inferior  to  those 
of  the  Ukraine  ;  and  wheat,  buckwheat,  Indian  corn, 
millet,  rice,  hemp,  flax,  and  tobacco,  yield  immense 
harvests  to  very  small  degrees  of  labour.  Yet  is 
agriculture  far  from  being  in  a  flourishing  condi- 
tion! Writers  on  political  economy  ascribe  this 
fact  principally  to  two  causes. 

1st.  The  degradation  and  oppression  of  the  la- 
bouring part  of  the  community  ;  and, 

2d.  The  want  of  convenient  commercial  outlets 
for  the  produce  of  the  soil. 

We  shall  find  in  Hungary  a  striking  illustration 
of  the  correctness  of  this  opinion.  "  The  Populus 
Hungaricus" — Hungarian  population — is  divided  into 
four  estates,  the  magnats,  the  nobles,  and  the  cler- 
gy, who  possess  all  the  lands,  and  the  "  misera  con- 
tribuens  plebs" — the  wretched  contributing  people — 
who,  besides  tithes,  rents,  and  corvees,  pay  all  the 
taxes.  This  miserable  populace  is  composed  of  the 
burghers  and  the  peasantry,  of  which  there  are 
three  kinds,  slaves  for  life,  temporary  slaves,  and  a 
third  sort  called  libera  emigrations,  who,  as  their 
name  indicates,  have  locomotive  powers  and  rights 

*  Geographique  Math. 
3 


28  AGRICULTURE. 

Of  the  condition  of  this  people  since  the  year  17C4 
(and  before  that  period  it  was  much  worse),  we 
may  form  an  idea  from  the  edict  of  Maria  Theresa, 
called  the  urbarium,  or  law  of  contracts  between 
landlord  and  tenant,  by  which  it  is  declared  that 
corporeal  punishment,  inflicted  by  the  master  for  in- 
solent words  or  conduct,  shall  not  exceed  twenty- 
four  strokes  with  a  cane  for  a  man,  and  the  same 
number  with  a  switch  for  a  woman.  Nor  is  the 
commercial  condition  of  this  people  better  than  the 
civil ;  they  are  not  only  obliged  to  take  from  Aus- 
tria many  things  which  they  could  obtain  in  other 
places  of  a  better  quality  and  at  a  lower  price,  but 
they  are  also  compelled  to  carry  to  Vienna  the  pro- 
ducts of  their  own  soil  and  labour,  where  their  sale 
is  embarrassed  and  their  value  lessened  by  heavy 
and  oppressive  taxes.  The  same  remark  applies 
to  Galitia,  whose  natural  outlet  is  the  Vistula  or 
the  Nieper ;  but  of  these  she  is  not  permitted  to 
avail  herself,  and,  like  her  sister  kingdoms,  is  com- 
pelled to  seek  the  markets  furnished  by  the  Dan- 
ube and  Trieste.  "  The  consequences  are  obvious  ; 
the  tenant  works  only  to  satisfy  hunger,  and  the 
landlord  is  satisfied  with  little  more  than  'vicium  et 
vesMumJ  "*  food  and  clothing. 

The  amount  of  lands  annually  cultivated  in  Ba- 
varia is  one  million  one  hundred  and  sixty-five 
thousand  acres,  which  produce  about  six  millions 
of  bushels  of  grain,  of  which  two  millions  are  sur- 
plus. The  Palatinate  (one  of  the  dependancies  of 
Bavaria)  is  also  very  productive.  The  route  between 
Heidelberg  and  D'Armstadt,  called  the  Bergstrass, 
traverses  one  of  the  finest  districts  of  Germany,  and, 
perhaps,  of  Europe  ;  where  are  seen  extensive  vine- 
yards, vast  meadows,  and  fertile  fields,  producing 
wheat,  barley,  tobacco,  madder,  rhubarb,  turnips, 
&c.,  &c.  In  the  year  1799,  all  the  electoral  pos- 

*Geog.  Math.,  vol.  iv.,  article  Hungary. 


STATE    OF    AGRICULTURE    IN    EUROPE.        29 

sessions  within  the  circle  of  Bavaria,  contained 
199,000  horses,  160,000  oxen,  465,000  cows,  961,000 
sheep,  320,000  hogs,  and  378,000  goats.  Yet  are  the 
Bavarians,  compared  with  the  inhabitants  of  the 
north  of  Germany,  half  a  century  in  the  rear.  The 
people  are  extremely  ignorant  and  fanatical :  like 
the  people  of  Rome  and  Lisbon,  they  sacrifice  much 
time  to  processions  and  fetes,  and,  like  them  also,  are 
slaves  of  the  vilest  appetites.  Debauchery  is  no- 
where more  flagrant  than  in  Munich.* 

Wurtemburg  is  ranked  among  the  most  fertile  and 
well-cultivated  countries  of  Germany.  The  mount- 
ainous parts  produce  potatoes,  oats,  hemp,  and  flax  ; 
the  less  hilly  abound  in  wheat,  spelts,  rye,  buck- 
wheat, Indian  corn,  and  barley ;  and  in  the  valleys 
we  find  tobacco,  and  madder,  and  vineyards  in  which 
the  grapes  of  France,  Cyprus,  and  Persia  succeed 
perfectly.  Apples,  pears,  &c.,  are  of  common  pro- 
duct and  of  excellent  quality.} 

XI.  It  has  been  justly  remarked,  that,  to  know  the 
state  of  husbandry  in  any  country,  you  have  but  to 
examine  the  instruments  employed,  the  succession  of 
crops,  and  the  condition  of  labourers.  Tried  by  these 
tests,  the  agriculture  of  Russia  will  be  found  to  be 
in  a  state  of  great  degradation.  The  plough  (called 
soka)  which  is  commonly  used  is  very  light,  of  sim- 
ple construction,  and  only  calculated  to%  enter  the 
ground  one  inch  and  a  half ;  the  harrow  consists  of 
one  or  more  young  pine-trees  (whose  branches  are 
cut  off  about  eight  inches  from  the  stem),  steeped  in 
water  to  add  to  their  weight,  and  tied  together.  With 
such  miserable  instruments,  each  drawn  by  a  single 
horse,  the  farmer  scratches  the  ground  without  al- 
ways covering  the  seed,  which  is  no  doubt  the  rea- 
son that  in  dry  seasons  their  harvests  are  very  bad.  J. 

*  Geog.  Math.,  &c.,  art.  Bavaria.  Compare  the  productive- 
ness of  Bavaria  with  England  ;  the  comparison  is  in  favour  of 
the  former. 

t  Idem.  \  Pallas,  pages  3  and  4,  vol.  i. 


30  AGRICULTURE. 

In  the  best  soil,  their  succession  of  crops  is  of  eight 
years ;  two  in  barley,  two  in  oats,  two  in  winter  rye, 
and  two  in  spring  rye.  Lands  of  less  fertility  are 
sown  two  years  out  of  three,  and  mountainous  tracts 
one  year  in  three,  when  they  are  abandoned  to 
weeds  until  rest  shall  have  reinstated  them.  "  To 
manure  them  would,  in  the  opinion  of  a  Russian 
peasant,  make  them  poorer  ;*  and  therefore  he  suf- 
fers his  dunghill  to  accumulate  into  a  nuisance, 
while  he  goes  on  to  clear  and  exhaust  new  fields." 
"  The  grains  raised  are  rye,  spelts,  barley,  millet,  and 
oats,  which,  from  want  of  sufficient  roads  and  mar- 
kets, are  often  low  priced,  as  are  also  horned  cattle 
and  horses :  an  ox  selling  for  a  rouble  and  a  half,  a 
cow  for  one  rouble,  and  a  horse  for  three  roubles."! 
To  this  wretchedness  we  must  add  (what,  perhaps, 
occasions  much  of  it),  that,  throughout  the  civilized 
part  of  Russia,  the  labours  of  agriculture  are  per- 
formed by  slaves  confounded  with  the  soil,  and 
bought  and  sold  with  it.  In  a  great  portion  of  the 
northern  section  of  this  vast  empire,  agriculture  is 
unknown,  and  the  chase,  the  fisheries,  cattle,  and 
reindeer,  furnish  the  only  means  of  subsistence. 

XII.  The  climate  and  soil  of  the  United  King- 
doms of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  are  particularly 
favourable  to  husbandry ;  nor  is  her  geographical 
position  less  auspicious ;  placed,  as  she  is,  on  the 
longest,  liife,  and  amid  the  most  important  markets 
of  the  Continent  of  Europe.  If  to  these  advantages 
be  added  the  laborious,  enlightened,  and  enterpri- 
sing character  of  the  nation,  we  cannot  but  expect 
results  the  most  favourable  to  agriculture:  yet  is 
the  fact  notoriously  otherwise.  To  show  that  this 
opinion  is  neither  hasty  nor  unfounded,  we  must  en- 
ter into  details  which  may  not  be  unprofitable. 

*  Pallas,  vol.  v.,  p.  60. 

t  A  silver  roubie  is  equal  to  five  livres  French,  or  nearly  one 
dollar  Spanish,  and  this  is  the  rouble  here  meant.  The  paper 
rouble  is  one  fifth  the  value  of  the  silver. 


STATE  OF  AGRICULTURE  IN  EUROPE.   31 

The  surface  of  England  is  estimated  at  37,265,853 
acres,  which  are  distributed  as  follows  : 

In  pasturage 18,796458 

In  tillage 11,350,501 

In  cities,  towns,  villages,  &c.,  and  roads  and  canals  3,454,740 
Lands  fit  for  pasturage  or  tillage  not  cultivated  3,515,238 
Lands  unfit  for  cultivation  ....  2,148,921 

Of  the  arable  land,  the  following  annual  disposi- 
tion is  made : 

In  wheat  and  rye 2,000,000 

In  pease,  beans,  and  buckwheat     .        .        .  2,000,000 

In  barley  and  oats 4,000,000 

In  fallow,  or  in  turnips  or  cabbages        .        .  3,400,000 

The  lands  in  wheat  and  rye  yield,  on  an  average 
of  ten  years,  three  quarters*  per  acre,  or  6,000,000 
quarters  ;  yet  is  there  an  annual  deficit  in  England 
of  1,820,000  quarters,  which  must  be  drawn  from 
foreign  markets.f 

There  is  certainly  nothing  very  flattering  in  this 
view  of  English  agriculture  ;  but  it  may  be  said  to 
be  one  of  statists  and  politicians,  and  probably  un- 
derrated. Let  us  see,  then,  what  their  most  eminent 
agriculturists,  as  Young,  and  St.  Clair,  and  Dick- 
son,  and  Marshal,  say  on  this  subject :  "  A  very 
small  portion  of  the  cultivated  parts  of  Great  Britain 
is,  to  this  day,  submitted  to  a  judicious  and  well-con- 
ducted system  of  husbandry,  not,  in  fact,  more  than 
four  counties  (Norfolk,  Sussex,  Essex,  and  Kent) ; 
while  many  large  tracts  of  excellent  soil  are  managed 
in  a  way  the  most  imperfect  and  disadvantageous."^. 

*  Twenty-four  bushels. — J.  B. 

t  The  sufficiency  of  the  harvests  in  England  to  supply  the 
wants  of  her  population  depends  on  the  character  of  the  seasons. 
When  these  are  favourable,  she  imports  very  little  foreign  grain ; 
and,  in  proportion  as  they  are  unfavourable,  she  is  obliged  to 
resort  to  supplies  from  abroad.  For  the  last  twenty  years  her 
average  annual  importation  of  breadstuff's  has  been  much  less 
than  the  deficit  here  given. 

J  See  the  Introduction  to  Dickson's  Practical  Agriculture, 
2d  vol.,  quarto. 


32  AGRICULTURE. 

Nor  is  her  management  of  cattle  better.  "  Con- 
sidering the  domestic  animals  in  a  general  way, 
we  find  each  species,  and  almost  every  race,  capa- 
ble of  great  improvement,  and,  with  few  exceptions, 
the  sheep  much  neglected.  In  some  districts  are 
whole  races  of  cattle  capable  of  improvement,  with- 
in a  reasonable  time,  in  the  three  great  objects  which 
they  are  expected  to  yield,  viz.,  milk,  flesh,  and  la- 
bour."* We  now  add  some  of  the  causes  to  which 
this  defective  husbandry  has  been  ascribed :  "  to 
enumerate  all  would  be  impossible,  from  their  num- 
ber and  complication.''! 

"  1st.  The  commons,  or  unenclosed  grounds,  which 
in  many  places  amount  to  near  one  half  of  the  whole 
arable  land,  and  which  are  submitted  to  the  most  ab- 
surd and  ruinous  system  of  culture. "J 

"  2d.  The  terms,  amounting  to  personal  servitude, 
under  which  many  of  the  lands  are  held." 

"3d.  The  shortness  of  leases  given  by  corpora- 
tions, civil  and  religious,  and  by  individuals,  and 
which  seldom  exceed  three,  five,  or  seven  years,  ex- 
cepting in  the  counties  of  Norfolk,  Sussex,  Essex, 
and  Kent,  where,  with  great  advantage  to  both  land- 
lord and  tenant,  they  are  frequently  extended  to 
twenty-one  years." 

"  4th.  The  tithes  in  kind,  paid  by  the  farmers  to 
the  church;  a  tax'highly  vexatious  in  its  character 
and  oppressive  in  its  effects  :  and, 

"  5th.  The  poor  tax,  which  has  become  enormous, 
and  of  which  the  yeomanry  pay  three  fourths.  Of 
this  tax  it  has  been  truly  said,  that  it  is  a  powerful 
instrument  of  depopulation;  a  barbarous  contri- 
vance for  checking  all  national  industry. "$ 

*  Marshal,  vol.  iv.,  p.  575.* 

t  Dickson's  Practical  Agriculture. 

j  Idem. 

§  Young's  Tour  through  Ireland,  vol.  ii.,  p.  302. 

*  Since  Marshal,  Dickson,  and  Young  wrote,  England  has 
done  more  to  improve  the  breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep,  except  the 
fine  woolled,  than  any  other  nation  or  country. — J.  B. 


THEORY    OF    VEGETATION.  33 

To  these  causes,  assigned  by  British  writers,  may 
be  added  the  increase  of  population  common  to  every 
nation  of  Europe,  and  which,  in  Great  Britain,  is  be- 
yond all  proportion  greater  than  the  progress  of 
agriculture  ;  the  augmentation  of  cattle,  which  occa- 
sions that  of  pasturage,  and  the  diminution  of  til- 
lage ;*  the  establishment  of  great  farms  at  the  ex- 
pense of  small  ones,  and  the  multiplication  of  parks 
and  pleasure  grounds ;  and,  lastly,  attractions  of  great 
cities,  and  the  continual  draughts  made  upon  the  agri- 
cultural population  for  the  army  and  navy,  and  for 
commerce  and  manufactures.! 


CHAPTER  III. 

THEORY    OF    VEGETATION. 

VEGETABLES  may  be  regarded  as  the  intermediate 
Jink  in  the  great  chain  of  creation  between  animals 
and  minerals.  The  latter  grow  by  mere  chymical 
affinity,  and  by  additions,  sometimes  analogous  to 
and  sometimes  foreign  from  their  own  nature  ; 
while  plants,  like  animals,  have  an  organization  that 

*  Mr.  Hume  quotes  with  approbation  an  author  who  com 
plains  of  the  decay  of  tillage  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  who 
ascribes  it  to  the  increase  of  pasturage,  in  consequence  of  the 
restraints  imposed  on  the  exportation  of  grain,  while  that  of 
butter,  cheese,  &c.,  was  free.  The  history  of  Europe,  if  read 
with  an  eye  to  public  economy,  furnishes  abundant  proof  that 
the  greatest  obstructions  to  agriculture  have  arisen  from  the  in- 
terference of  government. 

f  Our  author's  account  of  the  agriculture  of  England  evi- 
dently relates  to  the  state  of  things  in  that  country  some  fifty 
years  ago ;  and,  with  this  understanding,  it  is  interesting  as 
showing  more  strikingly  the  extent  of  the  improvements  of  every 
kind  which  have  been  made  since. 


34  AGRICULTURE. 

enables  them  to  receive  their  food,  digest  and  as- 
similate it  to  their  own  substance,  reproduce  their 
species,  and  maintain  an  existence  of  longer  or 
shorter  duration.  Thus  far  the  learned  are  agreed, 
but  at  the  next  step  they  differ. 

What  is  this  food  that  gives  to  plants  their  devel- 
opment, and  maturity,  and  powers  of  reproduc- 
tion 1  Lord  Bacon  believed  that  water  was  the 
source  of  vegetable  life,  and  that  the  earth  was 
merely  its  habitation,  serving  to  keep  plants  up- 
right, and  to  guard  them  against  the  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold.  Tull,  on  the  other  hand  (and,  after 
him,  Du  Hamel)  pronounced  pulverized  earth  the 
only  pabulum  of  plants,  and  on  this  opinion  built  his 
system  of  husbandry.  Van  Helmont  and  Boyle  op- 
posed this  doctrine  by  experiments :  the  former 
planted  and  reared  a  cutting  of  willow  in  a  bed  of 
dry  earth,  carefully  weighed,  and  protected  against 
accretion  by  a  tin  plate,  so  perforated  as  to  admit 
only  rain  and  distilled  water,  with  which  it  was  oc- 
casionally moistened.  At  the  end  of  five  years  the 
plant  was  found  to  have  increased  one  hundred  and 
sixty-four  pounds,  and  the  bed  of  earth  to  have  lost, 
of  its  original  weight,  only  two  ounces.  Boyle  pur- 
sued a  similar  process  with  gourds,  and  with  a  sim- 
ilar result.  Notwithstanding  the  apparent  conclu- 
siveness  of  these  experiments,  their  authority  was 
shaken,  if  not  subverted,  by  others  made  by  Mar- 
graff,  Bergman,  Hales,  Kirwan,  &c.,  &c.  The  first 
of  these  showed  that  the  rain  water  employed  by  Van 
Helmont  was  itself  charged  with  saline  and  other 
earthy  matter ;  Bergman  demonstrated  this  by  anal- 
ysis, while  Kirwan  and  Hales  proved  that  the  earth, 
in  which  the  willow  cutting  was  planted,  could  ab- 
sorb these  matters  through  the  pores  of  the  wooden 
box  which  contained  it,  and  that  a  glass  case  could 
alone  have  prevented  such  absorption.  Hunter, 
finding  that  oil  and  salt  entered  into  the  composi- 
tion of  plants,  concluded  that  these  formed  their 


THEORY    OF    VEGETATION.  35 

principal  food,  and  accordingly  recommended,  as 
the  great  desideratum  in  agriculture,  an  oil  compost. 
Lord  Kaimes  attempted  to  revive  the  expiring  creed 
of  Lord  Bacon ;  but  finding,  from  Hale's  statics,  that 
one  third  of  the  weight  of  a  green  pea  was  made  up 
of  carbonic  acid,  he  added  air  to  the  watery  aliment 
of  the  English  philosopher,  but  entirely  rejected 
oil  and  earth,  as  too  gross  to  enter  the  mouths  of 
plants,  and  salt  as  too  acrid  to  afford  them  nourish- 
ment. Quackery,  which  at  one  time  or  other  has 
made  its  way  into  all  arts  and  sciences,  could  not 
easily  be  excluded  from  agriculture.  Hence  it  was 
that  the  Abbe  de  Valemont's  prolific  liquor,  and  De 
Hare's  and  De  Vallier's  powders,  &c.,  &c.,  were  be- 
lieved to  be  all  that  was  necessary  to  vegetation, 
and  found  the  more  advocates  as  they  promised 
much  and  cost  little.  But  before  the  march  of 
modern  chymistry  quackery  could  not  long  main- 
tain itself;  and  from  the  labours  of  Bennet,  Priest- 
ly, Saussure,  Ingenhouz,  Sennebier,  Schaeder,  Chap- 
tal,  Davy,  &c.,  &c.,  few  doubts  remain  on  this  im- 
portant subject.  These  will  be  presented  in  the 
course  of  the  following  inquiry. 

I.  Of  earths,  and  their  relation  to  vegetation. 

Of  six  or  eight  substances  which  chymists  have 
denominated  earths,  four  are  widely  and  abundantly 
diffused,  and  form  the  crust  of  our  globe.  These 
are  silica,  alumina,  lime,  and  magnesia.  The  first  is 
the  basis  of  quartz, sand,  and  gravel;  the  second  of 
clay ;  the  third  of  bones,  river  and  marine  shells, 
alabaster,  marble,  limestone,  and  chalk ;  and  the 
fourth  of  that  medicinal  article  known  by  the  name 
of  calcined  magnesia.  In  a  pure  or  insulated  state,* 
these  earths  are  wholly  unproductive  ;  but,  when  de- 
composed and  mixed,f  and  to  this  mixture  is  added 

*  See  Gisbert's  experiments  on  pure  earths  and  their  mixtures. 
See  also  Davy's  Elements,  p.  15C. 

t  In  this  respect  nature  has  been  neither  negligent  nor  nig- 
gardly, if  (as  Fourcroy  asserts)  the  purest  sand  be  a  mixture  of 


36  AGRICULTURE. 

the  residuum  of  dead  animal  or  vegetable  matter,* 
they  become  fertile,  take  the  general  name  of  soils, 
and  are  again  specially  denominated  after  the  earth 
that  most  abounds  in  their  compositions  respective- 
ly. If  this  be  silica,  they  are  called  sandy ;  if  alu- 
mina, argillaceous ;  if  lime,  calcareous ;  and  if  mag- 
nesia, magnesian.  Their  properties  are  well  known  : 
a  sandy  soil  is  loose,  easily  moved,  little  retentive 
of  moisture,  and  subject  to  extreme  dryness  ;  an  ar- 
gillaceous soil  is  hard  and  compact  when  dry,  tough 
and  paste-like  when  wet,  greedy  and  tenacious  of 
moisture ;  turns  up,  when  ploughed,  into  massive 
clods,  and  admits  the  entrance  of  roots  with  great 
difficulty.  A  calcareous  soil  is  dry,  friable,  and  po- 
rous ;  water  enters  and  leaves  it  with  facility ;  roots 
penetrate  it  without  difficulty,  and  [being  already 
greatly  divided]  less  labour  is  necessary  for  it  than 
for  clay.  Magnesian,  like  calcareous  earth,  is  light, 
porous,  and  friable,  but,  like  clay,  when  wet,  takes 
the  consistency  of  paste,  and  is  very  tenacious  of 
water.  It  refuses  to  combine  with  oxygen  or  with 
the  alkalies^is  generally  found  associated  with 
granite,  gneiss,  and  schist,  and  is  probably  among 
the  causes  of  their  comparative  barrenness.! 

quartz,  alumina,  and  sometimes  of  calcareous  matter.  Specu- 
lative geology  is  romance,  and  does  not  merit  the  name  01  sci- 
ence ;  yet  is  science  obliged  to  borrow  her  theory  of  soils.  The 
alternation  of  heat  and  cold,  moisture  and  dryness,  decomposed 
the  mountains  of  primitive,  secondary,  and  tertiary  formation  ; 
rains,  and  the  laws  of  gravity,  brought  these  broken  parts  from 
places  of  more  to  those  of  less  elevation ;  where,  by  mechani 
cal  mixture  and  chymical  combination,  the  present  substrata 
•were  formed.  But  these  were  yet  naked  and  unproductive, 
when  the  Cryptogamia  family  (mosses  and  lichens)  took  pos 
session  of  them,  and  in  due  time  produced  that  vegetable  matter 
which  made  the  earth  productive  and  the  globe  habitable  ! 

*  Dead  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  in  the  last  stage  of  de 
composition,  give  a  black  or  brown  powder,  which  the  French 
chymists  call  terreau  or  humus,  and  which  Mr.  Davy  calls  an  ex 
tractive  matter ;  this  is  the  fertilizing  principle  of  soils  and  ma- 
nures. 

t  The  opinion  is  general  among  the  chymists  of  Europe,  that 


THEORY    OF    VEGETATION.  37 

In  these  qualities  are  found  the  mechanical  relations 
between  earths  and  vegetables.     To  the  divisibility 
of  the  former  it  is  owing  that  the  latter  are  enabled 
to  push  their  roots  into  the  earth ;  to  their  density, 
that  plants  maintain  themselves  in  an  erect  posture, 
rise  into  the  air,  and  resist  the  action  of  winds  and 
rains ;   and  to  their  power  of  absorbing  and  holding 
water,  they  owe  the  advantage  of  a  prolonged  ap 
plication  of  moisture,  necessary  or  useful  to  vege 
table  life.     But,  besides  performing  these  important 
offices,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  earths  COP 
tribute  to  the  food  of  vegetables.     This  opinion  rests 
on  the  following  considerations  and  experiments  : 

1.  If  earths  do  not  contribute  directly  to  the  food 
of  plants,  then  would  all  soils  be  alike  productive ; 
or,  in  other  words,  if  air  and  water  exclusively  sup- 
ply this  food,  then  would  a  soil  of  pure  sand  be  as 
productive  as  one  of  the  richest  alluvion. 

2.  Though  plants  may  be  made  to  grow  in  pound- 
ed glass  or  in  metallic  oxydes,  yet  is  their  growth 
in  these  neither  healthy  nor  vigorous  :  and, 

3.  All  plants,  on  analysis,  yield  an  earthy  pro- 
duct ;*  and  this  product  is  found  to  partake  of  the 
earth  that  predominates  in  the  soil  producing  the 
analyzed  plant.     This  important  fact  is  proved  by 
De  Saussure. 

FIRST    EXPERIMENT. 

Two  plants  (the  pinus  abies)  were  selected,  the 
one  from  a  calcareous,  the  other  from  a  granitic 
soil,  the  ashes  of  which  gave  the  following  pro- 
ducts : 

Granitic  soil.  Calcareous  soil. 

Potash    ....        3.60   ...        15 
Alk.  and  mu.  sulphates  4.24    .        .  15 

magnesian  earth  is  not  only  barren  itself,  but  the  cause  of  barren- 
ness in  other  soils  in  which  it  may  abound,  unless  saturated  with 
carbonic  acid.  See  Bosc,  Tenant,  and  Davy. 

*  Davy  says  this  never  exceeds  one  fiftieth  of  the  whole  pro- 
duct. 


*£  A 1  i^-r"^/* 

oJLU/  ^b 


38  AGRICULTURE. 

Carbonate  of  lime          .  46.34  63 

Carbonate  of  magnesia  6.77  00 

Silica      ....  ]3.49  00 

Alumina          .        .        .  14.86  16 

Metallic  oxydes      .        .  10.52  00 

SECOND    EXPERIMENT. 

Two  rhododendrons  were  taken,  one  from  the 
calcareous  soil  of  Mont  de  la  Salle,  the  other  from 
the  granitic  soil  of  Mont  Severn.  Of  a  hundred 
parts,  the  former  gave  fifty  seven  of  carbonate  of 
lime  and  five  of  silica;  the  latter,  thirty  or*carbon- 

ate  of  lime  and  fourteen  of  silica. 

»  • 

THIRD    EXPERIMENT. 

This  was  made  to  determine  whether  vegetables, 
the  product  of  a  soil  having  in  it  no  silica,  would, 
notwithstanding,  partake  of  that  earth.  Plants  were 
accordingly  taken  from  Reculey  de  Thoiry  (a  soil 
altogether  calcareous),  and  the  result  was  a  very 
small  portion  of  silica. 

These  experiments,  says  Chaptal,  leave  little,  if 
any  doubt,  that  vegetables  derive  the  earthy  matter 
they  contain  from  the  soil  in  which  they  grow.* 

II.  Of  water,  as  an  agent  in  vegetation. 

Seeds  placed  in  the  earth  at  a  temperature  above 
the  freezing  point,  and  watered,  will  develop ;  that 
is,  their  lobesf  will  swell,  their  roots  descend  into 
the  earth,  and  their  stems  rise  into  the  air.  But 
without  humidity  they  will  not  germinate  ;  or,  if  de- 
prived of  humidity  after  germination,  they  will  per- 
ish. When  germination  is  complete  and  the  plant 
formed,  its  roots  and  leaves  are  so  organized  as  to 

*  Schaeder  maintains  the  doctrine,  that  the  earths  found  in 
plants  are  created  there  by  the  process  of  vegetation.  His  essay 
on  this  subject  was  crowned  by  the  academy  of  Berlin  in  1801. 
His  experiments  were  the  first  to  determine  the  different  quan- 
tities of  silica  found  in  different  kinds  of  grain. 

t  Moisten  a  bean  in  warm  water,  and  detach  the  skin  that 
covers  it,  and  it  readily  divides  into  two  parts  ;  these  are  called 
lobes. 


THEORY    OF    VEGETATION.  39 

absorb  water.  The  experiments  of  Hales  prove,  that 
the  weight  of  plants  is  increased  in  wet  and  dimin- 
ished in  dry  weather ;  and  that,  in  the  latter,  they 
draw  from  the  atmosphere,  by  means  of  their 
leaves,*  the  moisture  necessary  for  their  well-being. 
Du  Hamel,  and,  after  him,  Sennebier,  has  shown, 
that  the  filaments  that  surround  the  roots  of  plants, 
and  which  have  been  called  their  hair,  perform  for 
them  in  the  earth  the  office  which  leaves  perform  in 
the  atmosphere ;  and  that,  if  deprived  of  these  fila- 
ments, the  plants  die. 

It  would  be  easy,  but  useless,  to  multiply  facts 
of  this  kind,  tending  to  establish  a  doctrine  not  con- 
tested, but  which,  after  all,  does  not  assert  that  water 
makes  any  part  of  the  food  of  plants.  On  this  point 
two  opinions  exist ;  the  one,  that  this  liquid  is  a 
solvent  and  conductor  of  alimentary  juices;  the 
other,  that  it  is  itself  an  aliment,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  a  purveyor  of  vegetable  food.  The  first  opin- 
ion is  abundantly  established.  Water,  when  char- 
ged with  oxygen,  supplies  to  germinating  seeds  the 
want  of  atmospheric  air ;  and,  saturated  with  animal 
or  vegetable  matter  in  a  slate  of  decomposition,  or 
slightly  impregnated  with  carbonic  acid,  very  per- 
ceptibly quickens  and  invigorates  vegetation.  The 
second  opinion  is  favoured  by  some  of  De  Saussure's 
experiments.  On  these  Chaptal  makes  the  follow- 
ing remark,  which  expresses  very  distinctly  an  ap- 
probation of  the  doctrine  they  suggest :  "  The  enor- 
mous quantity  of  hydrogen,  which  makes  so,large  a 
part  of  vegetable  matter,  cannot  be  accounted  for 
but  by  admitting,  in  the  process  of  vegetation,  the 
decomposition  of  water,  of  which  hydrogen  is  the 
principal  constituent ;  and  that,  though  there  is  no- 
thing in  the  present  state  of  our  experience  that  di- 
rectly establishes  this  doctrine,  yet  that  its  truth 

*  Bonnet's  experiments  show,  that  it  is  the  under  surface  of 
the  leaf  that  performs  this  function.  The  upper  surface  has  a 
different  office. 


40  AGRICULTURE. 

ought  to  be  presumed  from  the  analysis  of  plants 
and  the  necessary  and  well-known  action  of  water 
on  vegetation." 

III.  Of  air,  and  its  agency  in  vegetation. 

A  seed  deprived  of  air  will  not  germinate  ;  and  a 
plant  placed  under  an  exhausted  receiver  will  soon 
perish.  Even  in  a  close  and  badly  ventilated  gar- 
den, vegetables  indicate  their  situation;  they  are 
sickly  in  appearance  and  vapid  in  taste.  These 
facts  sufficiently  show  the  general  utility  of  air  to 
vegetation :  but  air  is  not  now  the  simple  and  ele- 
mentary body  that  the  ancient  chymists  described 
it  to  be.  Priestley  first,*  and  Lavoisier  after  him, 
analyzed  it,  and  found  that,  when  pure,  it  consisted 
of  about  70  parts  of  azote,  27  of  oxygen,  and  2  of 
carbonic  acid.  In  its  ordinary  or  impure  state,  it 
is  loaded  with  foreign  and  light  bodies ;  such  as 
mineral,  animal,  and  vegetable  vapours,  the  seeds  of 
plants,  the  eggs  of  insects,  &c.  Is  it  to  this  aggre- 
gate that  vegetation  owes  the  services  rendered  to 
it  by  air  ?  And,  if  not,  to  how  many  and  to  which  of 
its  regular  constituents  are  we  to  ascribe  them1? 
This  inquiry  will  form  the  subject  of  the  present 
article. 

All  vegetables  in  a  state  of  decomposition  give 
azote;  and  some  of  them,  as  cabbages,  radishes, 
&c.,  in  great  quantity.  This  abundance,  combined 
with  the  fact  that  vegetation  is  always  vigorous  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  dead  animal  matter,  led  to  the 
opinion  that  azote  contributed  largely  to  the  growth 
of  plants  ;  but  experiments,  more  exactly  made  and 
often  repeated,  disprove  this  opinion,  and  show  that 
in  any  quantity  it  is  unnecessary,  and  that,  in  a  cer- 
tain proportion,  it  is  fatal  to  vegetation. 

In  hydrogen  gas  plants  are  found  to  be  variously 
affected,  according  to  their  local  situation  ;  if  in- 

*  See  Priestley's  Experiments  and  Observations  on  different 
kinds  of  Ait  bogun  in  1767. 


THEORY    OF  VEGETATION.  41 

habitants  of  mountains,  they  soon  perish;  if  of 
plains,  they  show  a  constant  debility ;  but  if  of 
marshy  grounds,  their  growth  is  not  impeded. 

Carbonic  acid  is  formed  and  given  out  during  the 
process  of  fermentation,  putrefaction,  respiration, 
&c.,  and  makes  28  parts  out  of  100  of  atmospheric 
air.  It  is  composed,  according  to  Davy,  of  oxygen 
and  carbon,  in  the  proportion  of  34  of  the  former 
to  13  of  the  latter.  It  combines  freely  with  many 
different  bodies;  animals  and  vegetables  are  almost 
entirely  composed  of  it ;  for  the  coal  which  they 
give,  on  combustion,  is  but  carbon  united  to  a  little 
oxygen,  &c.  Priestley  was  the  first  to  discover  that 
plants  absorb  carbonic  acid;  and  Ingenhouse,  Senne- 
bier,  and  De  Saussure  have  proved  that  it  is  their 
principal  aliment.  Indeed,  the  great  consumption 
made  of  it  cannot  be  explained  by  any  natural  pro- 
cess excepting  that  of  vegetation.  On  this  head 
we  cannot  do  better  than  digest  the  experiments  of 
the  last  of  these  chymists  into  a  few  distinct  pro- 
portions :* 

1.  In  pure  carbonic  acid  gas,  seeds  will  swell,  but 
not  germinate.  2.  United  with  water,  this  gas  has- 
tens vegetation.  3.  Air,  containing  more  than  one 
twelfth  part  of  its  volume  of  carbonic  acid,  is  most 
favourable  to  vegetation.  4.  Turf,  or  other  carbona- 
ceous earth,  which  contains  much  carbonic  acid,  is 
unfavourable  to  vegetation  until  it  has  been  exposed 
to  the  action  of  atmospheric  air,  or  of  lime,  &c. 
5.  If  slackened  lime  be  applied  to  a  plant,  its  growth 
will  be  impaired  until  the  lime  shall  have  recovered 
the  carbonic  acid  which  it  lost  by  calcination.  6. 
Plants  kept  in  an  artificial  atmosphere,  and  charged 
with  carbonic  acid,  yield,  on  combustion,  more  of 
that  acid  than  plants  of  the  same  kind  and  weight 
growing  in  atmospheric  air.  7.  When  plants  are 
exposed  to  air  and  sunshine,  the  carbonic  acid  of 

*  Kecherches  chymiques  sur  la  vegetation,  chap.  ii. 


42  AGRICULTURE. 

the  atmosphere  is  consumed,  and  a  portion  of  oxy- 
gen left  in  its  place.  If  new  supplies  of  carbonic 
acid  be  given  to  the  air,  the  same  result  follows; 
whence  it  has  been  concluded,  that  air  furnishes 
carbonic  acid  to  the  plant,  and  that  the  plant  fur- 
nishes oxygen  to  the  air.  This  double  function  of 
absorption  and  respiration  is  performed  by  the  green 
leaves  of  plants.*  8.  Carbon  is  to  vegetation  what 
oxygen  is  to  animal  life :  it  gives  support  by  puri- 
fying the  liquids  and  rendering  the  solids  more 
compact. 

IV.  Of  light,  heat,  and  electricity,  and  their  agen- 
cy in  vegetation. 

When  deprived  of  light,  plants  are  pale,  lax,  and 
dropsical ;  restored  to  it,  they  recover  their  colour, 
consistency,  and  odour.  If  a  plant  be  placed  in  a 
cellar,  into  which  is  admitted  a  small  portion  of 
light  through  a  window  or  cranny,  thither  the 
plant  directs  its  growth,  and  even  acquires  an  un- 
natural length  in  its  attempt  to  reach  it.f  These 
facts  admitted,  no  one  can  doubt  the  agency  of 
light  in  vegetation ;  but,  in  relation  to  this  agency, 
various  opinions  exist ;  one,  that  light  enters  vege- 
table matter  and  combines  with  it ;  another,  that  it 
makes  no  part  either  of  the  vegetable  or  of  its  ali- 
ment, but  directly  influences  substances  which  are 
alimentary  ;J  and  a  third,  that,  besides  the  last  ef- 
fect, it  stimulates  the  organs  of  plants  to  the  exer- 
cise of  their  natural  functions. $ 

Without  doing  more  than  state  these  opinions, 
we  proceed  to  offer  the  results  of  many  experi- 
ments on  this  subject.  1st.  That  in  the  dark  no  ox- 
ygen is  produced,  nor  any  carbonic  acid  observed ; 
on  the  contrary,  oxygen  is  absorbed  and  carbonic 
acid  produced.  2d.  That  plants  exposed  to  light 

*  This  was  a  discovery  of  Sennebier. 
t  It  is  by  a  knowledge  of  this  fact  that  gardeners  bleach  chic 
>ry,  cellery,  &c. 
}  See  Fourcroy,  vol.  viii.       <J  See  Chaptal  on  Vegetation 


THEORY    OF   VEGETATION.  43 

produce  oxygen  gas  in  water.  3d.  That  light  is  es- 
sential to  vegetable  transpiration ;  as  this  process 
never  takes  place  during  the  night,  but  is  copious 
through  the  day ;  and,  4th.  That  plants  raised  in  the 
dark  abound  in  watery  and  saccharine  juices,  but 
are  deficient  in  woody  fibre,  oil,  and  resins  ;  whence 
it  is  concluded  that  saccharine  compounds  are 
formed  in  the  night,  and  oil,  resins,  &c.,  in  the  daj. 

When  the  weather  is  at  or  below  the  freezing 
point,  the  sap  of  plants  remain  suspended  and  hard- 
ened in  the  alburnum  ;*  but,  on  the  application  of 
heat,  whether  naturally  or  artificially  excited,  this 
sap  is  rendered  fluid,  is  put  into  motion,  and  the  buds 
begin  to  swell.  Under  the  same  impulse,  through 
the  medium  of  the  earth,  the  roots  open  their  pores, 
receive  nutritive  juices,  and  carry  them  to  the  heart 
of  the  plant.  The  leaves  being  now  developed, 
begin  and  continue  the  exercise  of  their  functions, 
till  winter  again,  in  the  economy  of  nature,  sus- 
pends the  operation  of  the  machine.  Nor  is  the  ac- 
tion of  heat  confined  to  the  circulation  of  vegeta- 
ble juices;  without  vapour  (its  legitimate  offspring), 
the  fountain  and  the  shower  would  be  unknown ; 
nor  would  the  great  processes  of  animal  and  vege- 
table fermentation  and  decomposition  go  on.  With- 
out rain  or  other  means  of  ameliorating  the  soil, 
what  would  be  the  aspect  of  the  globe  ?  what  the 
state  of  vegetation  1  what  the  situation  of  man  1 

The  universal  diffusion  of  electrical  matter,  found 
in  the  air  and  in  all  other  substances,  furnishes  a 
presumption  that  it  is  an  efficient  agent  in  vegeta- 
tion. Nollet  and  others  have  thought  that,  artifi- 
cially employed,  it  favoured  the  germination  of 
seeds  and  the  growth  of  plants ;  and  Davy  "  found 
that  corn  sprouted  more  rapidly  in  water  positively 
electrified  by  the  voltaic  battery  than  in  water  neg- 
atively electrified."!  These  opinions  have  not  es- 

*  Knight's  Observations,  &c.  f  Davy'a  Elements- 

4 


44  AGRICULTURE. 

caped  contradiction,  and  we  do  not  profess  to  decide 
where  philosophers  disagree. 

V.  Of  stable  manures,  and  of  lime,  marl,  and  gyp- 
sum, and  their  agency  in  vegetation. 

We  have  already  said  that  vegetables  in  the  last 
stage  of  decomposition  yield  a  black  or  brown  pow- 
der, which  Davy  calls  "  a  peculiar  extractive  matter 
of  fertilizing  quality,"  and  which  the  chy mists  of 
France  have  denominated  terreau.*  This  vegetable 
residuum  is  the  simple  mean  employed  by  nature  to 
re-establish  thaf  principle  of  fertility  in  the  soil 
which  the  wants  of  man  and  other  animals  are  con- 
stantly drawing  from  it.  It  was  analyzed  by  Hes- 
senfratz,  who  found  it  to  contain  an  oily,  extractive, 
and  carbonaceous  matter,  charged  with  hydrogen ; 
the  acetates  and  benzoates  of  potash,  lime,  and  am- 
moniac ;  the  sulphates  and  muriates  of  potash,  and 
a  soapy  substance,  previously  noticed  by  Bergman. 
Among  other  properties  (and  which  shows  its  com- 
bustible character)  is  that  of  absorbing  from  atmo- 
spheric air  its  oxygen,  and  leaving  it  only  azote. 
This  was  discovered  by  Ingenhouse,  who,  with  De 
Saussure  and  Braconnet,  pursued  the  subject  by 
many  new  and  interesting  experiments,  the  result  of 
which  is, 

1.  That  the  oxygen  thus  absorbed  deprives  the 
terreau  or  extractive  matter  of  part  of  its  carbon, 
which  it  renders  soluble  and  converts  into  muci- 
lage ;  and, 

2.  That  the  carbonic  acid  formed  in  the  process 
combines  with  this  mucilage,  and  with  it  is  absorb- 
ed by  the  roots  of  plants. 

If  we  put  a  plant  and  a  quantity  of  slackened 
lime  under  the  same  receiver,  the  plant  will  perish, 
because  the  lime  will  take  from  the  atmospheric  air 
all  the  carbonic  acid  it  contains,  and  thus  starve  the 
plant.  Vegetables  placed  near  heaps  of  lirne  in  the 

*  De  Candolle  and  Macaire  call  it  humus,  and  Dance  and 
others  geine. — J.  B. 


THEORY    OF    VEGETATION.  45 

open  air  suffer  from  the  same  cause  and  in  the 
same  way  ;  but  though  lime  in  large  quantities  de- 
stroys vegetation,  in  small  quantities  it  renders  it 
more  vigorous.  Its  action  is  of  two  kinds,  me- 
chanical and  chymical ;  the  first  is  the  mere  divis- 
ion of  the  soil  by  an  interposition  between  its  parts  , 
the  second,  the  faculty  of  rendering  soluble  vegeta- 
ble matter,  and  reducing  it  to  the  condition  of  ter- 
reau. 

The  mechanical  agency  ascribed  to  lime  belongs 
also  to  marl  and  to  ashes,  and  in  an  equal  degree ; 
but  their  chymical  operation,  though  similar,  is  less.* 

Gypsum  is  composed  of  lime  and  sulphuric  acid. 
Mayer  was  the  first  to  present  to  the  public  a  series 
of  experiments  upon  it  in  its  relation  to  agriculture. 
Many  chymists  have  followed  him,  and  a  great  va- 
riety of  opinion  yet  exists  with  regard  to  its  mode 
of  operation.  Yvart  thinks  that  the  action  of  gyp- 
sum is  exclusively  the  effect  of  the  sulphuric  acid, 
which  enters  into  its  composition ;  and  founds  this 
opinion  upon  the  fact  that  the  ashes  of  turf,  which 
contain  sulphate  of  iron  and  sulphate  of  alumina, 
have  the  same  action  upon  vegetation  as  gypsum. 
Lavsterie,  observing  that  plants  whose  roots  were 
nearest  the  surface  of  the  soil  were  most  acted 
upon  by  plaster,  concludes  that  gypsum  takes  from 
the  atmosphere  the  elements  of  vegetable  life,  and 
transmits  them  directly  to  plants.  Bosc  intimates 
that  the  septic  quality  of  gypsum  (which  he  takes 
for  granted)  best  explains  its  action  on  vegetation; 
but  this  opinion  is  subverted  by  the  experiments 
of  Davy,  who  found  that,  of  two  parcels  of  minced 
veal,  the  one  mixed  with  gypsum,  the  other  left 
by  itself,  and  both  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun, 
the  latter  was  the  first  to  exhibit  symptoms  of  pu- 
trefaction. Davy's  own  belief  on  this  subject  is, 

*  Vegetable  ashes  are  lime  combined  w  ith  an  earthy  saline 
matter. 


46  AGRICULTURE. 

that  it  makes  part  of  the  food  of  vegetables,  is  re- 
ceived into  the  plant,  and  combined  with  it.  The 
last  opinion  we  shall  offer  on  this  head  is  that  of 
the  celebrated  Chaptal.  "  Of  all  substances,"  he 
says,  "  gypsum  is  that  of  whose  action  we  know 
the  least.  The  prodigious  effect  it  has  on  the  whole 
race  of  trefoils  (clover),  &e.,  cannot  be  explained  by 
any  mechanical  agency,  the  quantity  applied  being  so 
small ;  nor  by  any  stimulating  power,  since  gypsum, 
raw  or  roasted,  has  nearly  the  same  effect ;  nor  by 
any  absorbent  quality,  as  it  only  acts  when  applied  to 
the  leaves.  If  permitted  to  conjecture  its  mode  of 
operation,  we  should  say  that  its  effects  being  great- 
est when  applied  to  the  wet  leaves  of  vegetables,  it 
may  have  the  faculty  of  absorbing  and  giving  out 
water  and  carbonic  acid,  little  by  little,  to  the  grow- 
ing plant.  It  may  also  be  considered  as  an  aliment 
in  itself;  an  idea  much  supported  by  Mr.  Davy's  ex- 
periments, which  show  that  the  ashes  of  clover  yield 
gypsum,  though  the  clover  be  raised  on  soils  not  nat- 
urally containing  that  substance." 


CHAPTER  IV. 

OF  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  SOILS,  AND  OF  THE  AGRICULTU- 
RAL RELATIONS  BETWEEN  SOILS  ANT)  PLANTS. 

WE  have  seen  that  the  earths  have  a  threefold 
capacity;  that  they  receive  and  lodge  the  roots  of 
plants,  and  support  their  stems ;  that  they  absorb 
and  hold  air,  water,  and  mucilage,  aliments  neces- 
sary to  vegetable  life  ;  and  that  they  even  contrib- 
ute a  portion  of  themselves  to  these  aliments. 
But  we  have  also  seen  that  they  are  not  equally 
adapted  to  these  offices ;  that  their  parts,  texture, 


ANALYSIS    OF    SOILS  47 

and  qualities  are  different;  that  they  are  cold  or 
warm,  wet  or  dry,  porous  or  compact,  barren  or 
productive,  in  proportion  as  one  or  the  other  may 
predominate  in  the  soil ;  and  that,  to  fit  them  for  dis- 
charging the  various  functions  to  which  they  are 
destined,  each  must  contribute  its  share,  and  all  be 
minutely  divided  and  intimately  mixed.  In  this  great 
work  nature  has  performed  her  part ;  but,  as  is  usual 
with  her,  she  has  wisely  and  benevolently  left  some- 
thing for  man  to  do. 

This  necessary  interposition  of  human  industry 
should  obviously  begin  by  ascertaining  the  nature 
of  the  soil.  But  neither  the  touch  nor  the  eye,  how- 
ever practised  or  acute,  can  in  all  cases  determine 
this.  Clay,  when  wet,  is  cold  and  tenacious  ;  a  de- 
scription that  belongs  also  to  magnesian  earths : 
sand  and  gravel  are  hard  and  granular ;  but  so  also 
are  some  of  the  modifications  of  lime :  vegetable 
mould  is  black  and  friable,  but  not  exclusively  so : 
for  schistous  and  carbonaceous  earths  have  the  same 
properties. 

It  is  here,  then,  that  chymistry  offers  herself  to  ob- 
viate difficulties  and  remove  doubts ;  but  neither  the 
apparatus  nor  processes  of  this  science  are  within 
the  reach  of  all  who  are  interested  in  the  inquiry, 
and  we  accordingly  subjoin  a  method  less  compre- 
hensive, but  more  simple,  and  sufficiently  exact  for 
agricultural  purposes,  and  which  calls  only  for  two 
vases,  a  pair  of  scales,  clean  water,  and  a  little  sul- 
phuric acid. 

"  1st.  Take  a  small  quantity  of  earth  from  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  field,  the  soil  of  which  you  wish  to 
ascertain ;  mix  them  well  together,  and  weigh  them  ; 
put  them  in  an  oven  heated  for  baking  bread,  and, 
after  they  are  dried,  weigh  them  again ;  the  differ- 
ence will  show  the  absorbent  power  of  the  earth,  or 
the  quantity  of  water  which  it  contained.  When 
the  loss  of  weight  in  400  grains  amounts  to  50,  this 
power  is  great,  and  indicates  the  presence  of  much 


48  AGRICULTURE. 

animal  or  vegetable  matter ;  but  when  it  does  not 
exceed  twenty,  the  absorbent  power  is  small,  and 
the  vegetable  matter  deficient.* 

"  2d.  Put  the  dried  mass  into  a  vase,  with  one. 
fourth  of  its  own  weight  of  clear  water ;  mix  them 
well  together;  pour  off  the  dirty  water  into  a  second 
vase,  and  pour  on  to  the  residuum  in  the  first  vase  as 
«nuch  clean  water  as  before ;  stir  the  contents,  and 
continue  this  process  until  the  water  poured  off  is 
as  clear  as  that  poured  on  the  earth.  What  remains 
in  the  first  employed  vase  is  sand,  silicious  or  cal- 
careous. 

"  3d.  The  dirty  water  collected  in  the  second  vase 
will  form  a  deposite,  which,  after  pouring  off  the 
water,  must  be  dried,  weighed,  and  calcined.  On 
weighing  it  after  this  process,  the  quantity  lost  will 
show  the  portion  of  animal  and  vegetable  mould  con- 
tained in  the  soil :  and, 

"  4th.  This  calcined  matter  must  then  be  carefully 
pulverized  and  weighed,  as  also  the  first  deposite  of 
sand,  but  without  mixing  them.  To  these  apply, 
separately,  sulphuric  acid,  and  what  they  respect- 
ively lose  in  weight  is  the  portion  of  calcareous  or 
aluminous  earths  contained  in  them.  These  last, 
again,  may  be  separated  by  soap  ley,  which  dis- 
solves them."f 

Here,  then,  is  the  light  we  wanted.  By  knowing 
the  disease,  we  find  the  cure.  Clay  and  sand  qual- 
ify each  other ;  either  of  these  will  correct  an  ex- 
cess of  lime  ;  and  magnesian  earth,  when  saturated 
with  carbonic  acid,  becomes  fertile. 

But  entirely  to  alter  the  constitution  of  a  soil, 
whether  by  mechanical  or  other  means,  is  a  work 
of  time,  labour,  and  expense,  and  little  adapted  to 
the  pecuniary  circumstances  of  farmers  in  general. 

»  See  Davy's  Elements. 

t  This  method  of  analyzing  soils  is  that  described  by  M. 
Bosc,  member  of  the  Institute  of  France,  &c.,  and  recommend- 
ed to  French  agriculturists. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SOILS.  49 

Fortunately,  a  remedy  cheaper,  more  accessible, 
and  less  difficult,  is  found  in  that  great  diversity  of 
habits  and  character  which  mark  the  vegetable" 
races.  We  shall,  therefore,  in  what  remains  of  this 
chapter,  indicate  the  principal  of  these,  as  furnish 
ing  the  basis  of  all  rational  agriculture. 

1st.  Plants  have  different  systems  of  roots,  stems, 
and  leaves,  and  adopt  themselves,  accordingly,  to  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  soils :  the  tussilago  prefer  clay,  the 
spergula  sand ;  asparagus  will  not  flourish  on  a  bed 
of  granite,  nor  muscus  Islandicus  on  one  of  allu- 
vion. It  is  obvious  that  fibrous-rooted  plants,  which 
occupy  only  the  surface  of  the  earth,  can  subsist  on 
comparatively  stiff  and  compact  soils,  in  which 
those  of  the  leguminous  and  cruciform  families 
would  perish,  from  inability  to  penetrate  and  divide. 

2d.  Plants  of  the  same  or  of  a  similar  kind  do  not 
follow  each  other  advantageously  in  the  same  soil. 
Every  careful  observer  must  have  seen  how  grasses 
alternate  in  meadows  or  pastures  where  nature  is 
left  to  herself.  At  one  time  timothy,  at  another 
clover,  at  a  third  redtop,  and  at  a  fourth  blue  grass 
prevails.  The  same  remark  applies  to  forest  trees ; 
the  original  growth  of  wood  is  rarely  succeeded  by 
a  second  of  the  same  kind ;  pine  is  followed  by 
oak,  oak  by  chestnut,  chestnut  by  hickory.  A  young 
apple-tree  will  not  live  in  the  place  where  an  old 
one  has  died ;  even  the  pear-tree  does  not  thrive  in 
succession  to  an  apple?tree,  but  stone  fruit  will 
follow  either  with  advantage.  "  In  the  Gautinois," 
says  Bosc,  "  saffron  is  not  resumed  but  after  a  lapse 
of  twenty  years;  and  in  the  Netherlands,  flax  and 
colzat  require  an  interval  of  six  years.  Pease,  when 
they  follow  beans,  give  a  lighter  crop  than  when 
they  succeed  plants  of  another  family."* 

*  The  ill  effect  of  a  succession  of  crops  of  the  same  kind  was 
not  unknown  to  the  Romans.  We  have  proof  of  this  in  the  fol- 
lowing passage  of  Festus  :  "  Restibilis  ager  fit  qui  continuo 


50  AGRICULTURE. 

3d.  Vegetables,  whether  of  the  same  family  or  no/, 
having  a  similar  structure  of  roots,  should  not  succeed 
each  other.  It  has  been  observed  that  trees  suffer 
considerably  by  the  neighbourhood  of  sainfoin  and 
lucerne,  on  account  of  the  great  depth  to  which  the 
roots  of  these  plants  penetrate ;  whereas  culmifer- 
ous  grasses  do  them  no  harm. 

4th.  Annual  or  biennial  trefoils  prevent  the  escape 
of  moisture  from  sandy  and  arid  soils,  and  should 
constantly  cover  them  in  the  absence  of  other 
plants  ;*  while  drying  and  dividing  crops,  as  beans, 
cabbages,  chicory,  &c.,  &c,,  are  best  fitted  to  correct 
the  faults  of  stiff  and  wet  clays. 

5th.  When  plants  are  cultivated  in  rows  or  hills,  and 
the  ground  between  them  is  thoroughly  worked,  the 
earth  is  kept  open,  divided,  and  permeable  to  air,  heat, 
and  water,  and,  accordingly,  receives  from  the  atmo- 
sphere nearly  as  much  alimentary  provision  as  it  gives 
to  the  plant.  This  principle  is  the  basis  of  Grill  hus- 
bandr)r. 

6th.  All  plants  permitted  to  go  through  the  phases 
of  vegetation  (and,  of  course,  to  give  their  seeds),  ex- 
haust the  ground  in  a  greater  or  less  degree ;  but,  if 
cut  green  and  before  seeding,  they  take  little  from  the 
principle  of  fertility. 

7th.  Plants  are  exhausters  in-proportion  to  the  length 
of  the  time  they  occupy  the  soil.  Those  of  the  cul- 
miferous  kinds  (wheat,  rye,  &c.)  do  not  ripen,  if 
sown  in  the  fall,  under  ten  months,  and  during  this 
period  forbid  the  earth  from  being  stirred ;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  leguminous  plants  occupy  it  but 
from  three  to  four  months,  and  permit  frequent 
ploughings.  This  is  one  reason  why  culmiferous 

biennio  seritur  farreo  spico,  id  est  aristato,  quod,  ne  fiat  solent, 
tfui  pradia  locant,  excipere." 

*  The  "sterilis  tellos  medio  versatur  in  cestu"—  the  bnre 
earth  turned  up  in  midsummer— of  Virgil,  shows  the  opinion 
he  entertained  of  a  husbandry  that  left  the  fields  without  vege- 
tation. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SOILS.  51 

crops  are  greater  exhausters  than  leguminous  ;  an- 
other is,  that  the  stems  of  culmiferous  plants  be- 
come hard  and  flinty,  and  their  leaves  dry  and  yel- 
low, from  the  time  of  flowering  till  the  ripening  of 
the  seed,  losing  their  inhaling  or  absorbing  facul- 
ties, circulating  no  juices,  and  living  altogether  in 
their  roots,  and  on  aliments  exclusively  derived 
from  the  earth  ;  whereas  leguminous  or  cruciferous 
plants,  as  cabbages,  turnips,  &c.,  &c.,  have  succu- 
lent stems,  and  broad  and  porous  leaves,  and  draw 
their  principal  nourishment  from  the  atmosphere. 
The  remains  of  culmiferous  crops  also  are  fewer 
and  less  easily  decomposed  than  those  of  the  legu- 
minous family. 

8th.  Meadows,  natural  and  artificial,  yield  the  food 
necessary  to  cattle,  and,  in  proportion  as  these  are  mul- 
tiplied, manure.'!  are  increased  and  the  soil  made  better. 
Another  circumstance  which  recommends  meadows 
is,  that,  so  long  as  they  last,  they  exact  but  little 
labour,  and  leave  the  whole  force  of  the  farmer  to 
be  directed  to  his  arable  grounds. 

9th.  Grasses  are  either  fibrous  or  tap-rooted,  or  both 
The  remarks  already  made  in  articles  1,  2,  and  3,  ap- 
ply also  to  them.  Timothy,  redtop,  oat-grass,  and 
rye-grass,  succeed  best  in  stiff,  wet  soils.  Sainfoin 
does  well  on  soils  the  most,  bare,  mountainous,  and 
arid ;  lucerne  and  the  trefoils  (or  clovers)  only  at- 
tain the  perfection  of  which  they  are  susceptible  in 
warm,  dry,  calcareous  earth. 

10th.  The  ameliorating  quality  of  tap-rocted  plants 
is  supposed  to  be  in  proportion  to  their  natural  duration  ; 
annual  clover  (Inpinella)  has  less  of  this  property 
than  biennial  (Dutch  clover),  biennial  less  thansain- 
iom,  and  sainfoin  less  than  lucerne. 

llth.  Any  green  crop  ploughed  into  the  soil  has 
an  effect  highly  improving ;  but  for  this  purpose  lu- 
pines and  buckwheat  (cut  when  in  flower)  are  most 
proper. 

12th.  Mixed  crops  (as  Indian  corn  and  pumpkins, 
5 


52  AGRICULTURE. 

and  pease  and  oats)  are  much  and  profitably  employed, 
and  with  less  injury  to  the  soil  than  either  corn  or  oats 
alone.* 


CHAPTER  V. 

OP    PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE,    AND    ITS    NECESSARY    IN- 
STRUMENTS. 

WE  begin  this  part  of  our  subject  with  a  few  re- 
marks on  the  instruments  necessary  to  agriculture, 
which  may  be  comprised  under  the  well-known 
names  of  the  plough,  the  harrow,  the  roller,  the 
threshing-machine,  and  the  fanning-mill. 

1.  Of  the  Plough. 

It  is  among  the  inscrutable  dispensations  of  Prov- 
idence, that  the  arts  most  useful  to  man  have  been 
of  later  discovery,  of  slower  growth,  and  of  less 
marked  improvement  than  those  that  aimed  only 
at  his  destruction.  At  a  time  when  the  phalanx 
and  the  legion  were  invented  and  perfected,  and 
when  the  instruments  they  employed  were  various 
and  powerful,  those  of  agriculture  continued  to  be 
few,  simple,  and  inefficient. 

Of  the  Greek  plough  we  know  nothing ;  and  the 
general  disuse  of  that  described  by  Virgil  and  Pliny 
furnishes  a  degree  of  evidence  that  experience  has 
found  it  incompetent  to  its  objects.  With  even  the 
boasted  lights  of  modern  knowledge,  scientific  men 

*  The  good  effect  of  these  mixtures  was  known  to  the  an- 
cients, from  whom  the  practice  has  descended  to  us.  What  a 
picture  of  fertility  and  abundance  have  we  in  the  22d  chap.,  18th 
book,  of  Pliny's  Natural  History :  "  Sub  vite  seriturfrumentum, 
mox  legumen,  decinde  olus,  omnia,  eodem  anno,  omniaque  ali- 
ena  umbra  aluntur."  Under  the  vine  is  sowed  grain,  shortly  af- 
terward pulse,  then  garden  vegetables,  all  in  the  same  year,  and 
sheltered  and  cherished  by  each  other's  shade. 


PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE.  53 

are  not  agreed  upon  the  form  and  proportions  most 
proper  for  this  instrument.  As  in  other  cases,  so  in 
this,  there  may  be  no  abstract  perfection;  what  is 
best  in  one  description  of  soil  may  not  be  so  in  an- 
other; yet,  as  in  all  soils  the  office  of  the  plough  is 
the  same,  viz.,  to  cleave  and  turn  over  the  earth,  there 
cannot  but  be  some  definite  shape  and  proportions 
better  fitted  for  these  purposes,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  less  susceptible  of  resistance,  than  any  other. 

This  beau  ideal,  this  supposititious  excellence,  in 
the  mechanism  of  a  plough,  has  been  the  object  of 
great  national  as  well  as  individual  research.  In 
Great  Britain,  high  prizes  have  been  established  for 
its  attainment ;  and  in  France,  under  the  ministry  of 
Chaptal,  10,000  francs,  or  $2000,  were  offered  for 
this  object  by  the  agricultural  society  of  the  Seine. 
In  both  countries  the  subject  has  employed  many 
able  pens ;  those  of  Lord  Kaimes,  of  Mr.  Young,  of 
Mr.  Arbuthnot,  of  Lord  Somerville,  and  of  Mes« 
sieurs  Duhamel,  Chateauvieux,  Bosc,  Guillaume, 
&c.  It  is  not  for  us,  therefore,  to  do  more  than 
assemble  and  present  such  rules  for  the  construc- 
tion of  this  instrument  as  have  most  attained  the 
authority  of  maxims. 

1st.  The  beam,  or  that  part  of  the  plough  which 
carries  the  coulter,  and  furnishes  the  point  of  draught, 
should  be  as  near  that  of  resistance  as  possible  ;  be- 
cause the  more  these  are  approached,  the  less  is  the 
moving  power  required.  Even  the  shape  of  the 
beam  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference.  In  the  old 
ploughs  it  was  generally  straight,  but  a  small 
curve  is  now  preferred ;  because  it  has  the  effect 
of  strengthening  the  coulter  by  shortening  it. 

2d.  The  head  of  the  plough  is  the  plane  on  which 
it  moves.  This  should  be  concave,  because  tha1: 
form  offers  fewer  points  of  friction,  and,  of  course 
less  resistance.  Between  the  beam  "and  the  head  is 
an  angle,  on  which  depends  the  orincipal  office  of 
the  plough ;  the  making,  at  will,  9  -Jeep  or  a  shal 


54  AGRICULTURE. 

low  furrow.  If  you  wish  a  deep  furrow,  diminish 
the  angle,  and  vice  versa:  but  this  angle  should  in 
no  case  exceed  from  18  to  24  degrees. 

The  resistance  made  to  the  plough  being  produ- 
ced less  by  the  weight  of  the  earth  than  by  the  co- 
hesion of  its  parts,  it  is  evident  that  the  head  should 
be  shod  with  iron,  and  rendered  as  smooth  as  pos- 
sible. This  remark  applies  equally  to  the  soc  and 
to  the  mouldboard. 

3d.  The  soc,  in  its  widest  part,  should  be  larger 
than  the  head.  It  has  different  shapes  in  different 
countries.  In  some  is  given  to  it  that  of  an  isosce- 
les triangle ;  in  others,  that  of  the  head  of  a  lance  ; 
in  Biscay,  that  of  a  crescent ;  and  in  Poland,  of  a 
two  pronged  fork.  But,  whatever  be  its  shape,  it 
should  be  well  pointed  and  polished,  enter  the  earth 
with  facility,  and  cut  it  easily. 

4th.  To  the  mouldboard  some  workmen  give  the 
shape  of  a  prismatic  wedge ;  others  make  the  up- 
per part  convex  and  the  lower  concave :  while 
many  make  it  entirely  flat.  In  stiff  soils,  the  semi- 
cycloid  is  the  form  to  be  preferred;  and  in  loose,  fri- 
able soils,  the  semi-ellipsis.*  The  iron  mouldboard 
has  great  advantages  over  the  wooden,  particularly 
when  it,  the  shear,  and  the  soc,  form  one  piece,  as 
in  the  ploughs  of  Mr.  Cook. 

It  is  a  general  opinion,  that  a  heavy  plough  is 
more  disadvantageous  than  a  light  one ;  because 
the  draught  of  the  former,  being  greater,  will  be  more 
fatiguing  to  the  cattle ;  but  the  experiments  of  the 
agricultural  society  of  London  establish  a  contrary 
doctrine,  and  show  that,  in  light  grounds,  the  labour 
is  more  easily  and  better  performed  with  a  heavy 
than  with  a  light  plough. 

5th.  The  coulter  is  a  species  of  knife  inserted  in  the 
beam,  and  so  placed  before  the  soc  as  to  cut  the  sod. 
It  is  susceptible  of  being  raised  or  depressed  at  will. 

6th.  The  handles  of  the  plough  ought  to  be  made 
*  See  Arbuthnot  on  Ploughs, 


PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE. 


55 


of  some  kind  of  heavy  wood,  that  they  may  operate 
as  a  counterweight  to  the  head,  the  soc,  and  the 
mouldboard. 

To  these  remarks  we  subjoin  two  sets  of  experi- 
ments, made  with  the  most  approved  French  and 
English  ploughs,  that  of  Guillaume  and  Small's 
Rotheram  plough  improved,  which  furnish  a  means  of 
comparison  between  the  best  ploughs  of  Europe  and 
those  of  this  country. 

The  resistance  (stated  in  these  tables)  was  meas- 
ured and  ascertained  by  a  dynonometer,  a  machine 
indispensable  to  those  who  would  make  correct  ob- 
servations on  the  relative  advantages  of  different 
ploughs. 


THE   FRENCH    PLOUGH. 

Resistance  in  pounds. 

1st  experiment  200 


2d 
3d 
4th 
5th 


Divided  by  5)1080 
Average 


240  2d 
2003d 
2204th 
220  5th 
6th 
7th 
8th 
216  9th 


THE    ENGLISH    PLOUGH. 

Resistance  in  pounds. 
1st  experiment 


360 
380 
480 
460 
400 
400 
420 
386 
440 


Divided  by  9)3720 
Average         .        .413 

II.  The  Harrow. — This  is  of  different  kinds  ;  the 
triangular  and  the  square,  the  single  and  the  double. 
But,  of  whatever  form,  its  uses  are  the  same ;  to 
smooth  the  field  after  ploughing,  to  break  and  pul- 
verize the  clods,  and  to  cover  the  seed.  These 
uses  sufficiently  indicate  the  propriety  of  employ- 
ing two  in  succession ;  one  of  heavy  frame,  with 
few  and  long  teeth,  like  the  Scotch  break;  the 
other  of  lighter  construction,  with  more  and  short- 
er teeth.  Our  own  experience  leads  us  to  believe 
that  the  common  harrow  covers  the  seed  too  much, 


56  AGRICULTURE. 

because  small  seeds  will  not  vegetate  at  a  depth 
greater  than  three  inches. 

III.  The  Roller  is  a  cylinder  of  heavy  wood,  turn- 
ing on  gudgeons  or  on   an  axle,  and  placed  in  a 
frame,  to  which  is  attached  a  shaft ;  it  is  of  differ- 
ent dimensions,  but  need   not  exceed   that  which 
may  be  drawn  by  one,  or,  at  most,  by  two  horses  or 
oxen.     This  instrument  is  indispensable  in   good 
husbandry,  yet  it  is  rarely  used  in  ours.     Its  offi- 
ces are  threefold ;  to  render  loose  soil  more  com- 
pact, to  break  the  clods  on  stiff  ones,  and,  on  both, 
to  compress  the  earth  after  seeding,  so  that  it  be 
everywhere  brought  in  contact  with  the  grain.    It  is 
also  usefully  employed  in  reinstating  the  roots  of 
meadow  grasses,  loosened  and  raised  by  the  alter- 
nate freezing  and  thawing  of  the  ground,  and,  with 
a  similar  view,  may  be  passed  over  winter  crops 
early  in  the  spring. 

Its  clod-breaking  and  pulverizing  property  is 
much  increased  by  surrounding  the  roller  with  nar- 
row bands  of  iron,  two  inches  broad,  three  inches 
thick,  and  six  inches  apart;  or  by  studding  it  with 
iron  points  resembling  narrow  teeth,  and  projecting 
Ihree  or  four  inches. 

IV.  The   Threshing-machine  is  of  English  inven- 
tion, and  may  be  well  enough  adapted  to  the  taste 
and  circumstances  of  rich  amateurs,  but  not  at  all 
to  those  of  farmers  in  general.     Our  objections  to 
it  are  three :    the  first   cost,  which  is  great ;   the 
quantum  of  moving  power  employed,  which  is  equal 
to  that  of  six  horses ;  and  the  number  of  hands  re- 
quired to  attend  it,  which  is  not  less  than  four.* 
We  have  seen,  in  France,  a  machine  for  the  same 
purpose,  but  of  much  simpler  structure,  called  the 
''  Rouleau  de  depiquer"  which  is  only  a  fluted  cylin- 
der ;  yet,  simple  and  cheap  as  this  was,  it  could  not 

*  This  opinion  of  the  value  of  the  threshing-machine  will, 
we  presume,  meet  with  but  little  favour  among  our  wheat 
farmers. 


PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE.  57 

maintain  itself  against  the  more  ancient  instru> 
ments,  the  flail  and  the  horse.  Still  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  new  experiments  may  succeed  better, 
and  abridge  the  manual  labour  usually  given  to  this 
branch  of  husbandry,  and  that  the  mechanical  genius 
of  our  own  country,  which  is  not  inferior  to  that  of 
any  other,  may  be  the  first  to  combine  power  and 
cheapness  in  this  machine. 

This  hope  is  probably  suggested  by  the  descrip- 
tion of  a  new  invented  threshing  machine  now  be- 
fore me,  and  which  I  may  be  permitted  to  trans- 
cribe from  the  letter  of  the  inventor.  "  The  ma- 
chine I  have  built  is  three  feet  wide.  One  horse 
will  thresh,  with  much  ease,  as  much  wheat  as  can 
be  laid  on  it  by  one  man  (the  straw  to  be  taken 
away  by  another),  say  from  fifty  to  one  hundred 
bushels  in  a  day,  and  the  saving  of  grain  will  pay  for 
the  labour ;  for  I  think  that,  with  good  attendance, 
not  a  particle  of  grain  can  escape  with  the  straw. 
The  expense  of  the  machine  will  be  from  fifty  to 
seventy  dollars,  exclusive  of  the  moving  power, 
which  is  awheel  about  ten  feet  diameter  on  an  up- 
right shaft,  to  which  a  lever  is  fixed  to  hitch  the 
horse.  Within  this  main  wheel  a  small  one  should 
be  made  to  work,  about  two  feet  diameter,  on  a 
shaft  carrying  a  drum  four  feet  wide.  With  this 
simple  gearing,  and  drawn  by  a  horse  that  walks 
well,  the  machine  will  give  about  eighteen  hundred 
strokes  in  a  minute,  and,  if  fully  attended,  will,  with- 
out hard  labour  for  the  horse,  thresh  a  bushel  every 
three  or  four  minutes." 

V.  The  Fanning-mill.  Other  things  being  equal, 
the  cleanest  wheat  is  most  easily  preserved,  and,  on 
manufacture,  gives  the  best  flour  and  in  the  largest 
quantity.  These  considerations  offer  inducement 
enough  for  the  employment  of  this  machine,  which, 
besides  doing  its  business  well,  saves  a  great  deal 
of  time.  It  is  too  well  known  to  lequire  descrip- 
tion. 


56  AGRICULTURE. 

because  small  seeds  will  not  vegetate  at  a  depth 
greater  than  three  inches. 

III.  The  Roller  is  a  cylinder  of  heavy  wood,  turn- 
ing on  gudgeons  or  on   an  axle,  and  placed  in  a 
frame,  to  which  is  attached  a  shaft ;  it  is  of  differ- 
ent dimensions,  but  need   not  exceed   that  which 
may  be  drawn  by  one,  or,  at  most,  by  two  horses  or 
oxen.     This  instrument  is  indispensable  in   good 
husbandry,  yet  it  is  rarely  used  in  ours.     Its  offi- 
ces are  threefold ;  to  render  loose  soil  more  com- 
pact, to  break  the  clods  on  stiff  ones,  and,  on  both, 
to  compress  the  earth  after  seeding,  so  that  it  be 
everywhere  brought  in  contact  with  the  grain.    It  is 
also  usefully  employed  in  reinstating  the  roots  of 
meadow  grasses,  loosened  and  raised  by  the  alter- 
nate freezing  and  thawing  of  the  ground,  and,  with 
a  similar  view,  may  be  passed  over  winter  crops 
early  in  the  spring. 

Its  clod-breaking  and  pulverizing  property  is 
much  increased  by  surrounding  the  roller  with  nar- 
row bands  of  iron,  two  inches  broad,  three  inches 
thick,  and  six  inches  apart ;  or  by  studding  it  with 
iron  points  resembling  harrow  teeth,  and  projecting 
Ihree  or  four  inches. 

IV.  The   Threshing-machine  is  of  English  inven- 
tion, and  may  be  well  enough  adapted  to  the  taste 
and  circumstances  of  rich  amateurs,  but  not  at  all 
to  those  of  farmers  in  general.     Our  objections  to 
it  are  three :   the  first   cost,  which  is  great ;   the 
quantum  of  moving  power  employed,  which  is  equal 
to  that  of  six  horses ;  and  the  number  of  hands  re- 
quired to  attend  it,  which  is  not  less  than  four.* 
We  have  seen,  in  France,  a  machine  for  the  same 
purpose,  but  of  much  simpler  structure,  called  the 
''  Rouleau  de  depiquer,"  which  is  only  a  fluted  cylin- 
der ;  yet,  simple  and  cheap  as  this  was,  it  could  not 

*  This  opinion  of  the  value  of  the  threshing-machine  will, 
we  presump,  meet  with  but  little  favour  among  our  wheat 
farmers. 


PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE.  57 

maintain  itself  against  the  more  ancient  instni' 
ments,  the  flail  and  the  horse.  Still  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  new  experiments  may  succeed  better, 
and  abridge  the  manual  labour  usually  given  to  this 
branch  of  husbandry,  and  that  the  mechanical  genius 
of  our  own  country,  which  is  not  inferior  to  that  of 
any  other,  may  be  the  first  to  combine  power  and 
cheapness  in  this  machine. 

This  hope  is  probably  suggested  by  the  descrip- 
tion of  a  new  invented  threshing  machine  now  be- 
fore me,  and  which  I  may  be  permitted  to  trans- 
cribe from  the  letter  of  the  inventor.  "  The  ma- 
chine I  have  built  is  three  feet  wide.  One  horse 
will  thresh,  with  much  ease,  as  much  wheat  as  can 
be  laid  on  it  by  one  man  (the  straw  to  be  taken 
away  by  another),  say  from  fifty  to  one  hundred 
bushels  in  a  day,  and  the  saving  of  grain  will  pay  for 
the  labour ;  for  I  think  that,  with  good  attendance, 
not  a  particle  of  grain  can  escape  with  the  straw. 
The  expense  of  the  machine  will  be  from  fifty  to 
seventy  dollars,  exclusive  of  the  moving  power, 
which  is  a  wheel  about  ten  feet  diameter  on  an  up- 
right shaft,  to  which  a  lever  is  fixed  to  hitch  the 
horse.  Within  this  main  wheel  a  small  one  should 
be  made  to  work,  about  two  feet  diameter,  on  a 
shaft  carrying  a  drum  four  feet  wide.  With  this 
simple  gearing,  and  drawn  by  a  horse  that  walks 
well,  the  machine  will  give  about  eighteen  hundred 
strokes  in  a  minute,  and,  if  fully  attended,  will,  with- 
out hard  labour  for  the  horse,  thresh  a  bushel  every 
three  or  four  minutes." 

V.  The  Farming-mill.  Other  things  being  equal, 
the  cleanest  wheat  is  most  easily  preserved,  and,  on 
manufacture,  gives  the  best  flour  and  in  the  largest 
quantity.  These  considerations  offer  inducement 
enough  for  the  employment  of  this  machine,  which, 
besides  doing  its  business  well,  saves  a  great  deal 
of  time.  It  is  too  well  known  to  jequire  descrip- 
tion. 


58 


AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


OF   MANURES  ;    THEIR   MANAGEMENT   AND  APPLICATION. 

THE  principle  of  fertility  (the  result  of  animal  and 
vegetable  decomposition)  is,  as  we  have  seen,  sus- 
ceptible of  solution,  and  in  this  form  becomes  the 
aliment  of  that  artificial  vegetation  which  is  the 
work  of  man,  and  which  leaves  so  little  on  the 
earth  to  compensate  for  the  great  deal  which  it 
takes  from  it.  In  a  course  of  years,  therefore, 
there  will  be  an  actual  loss  or  subtraction  of  mat- 
ter, useful  or  necessary  to  the  growth  of  plants, 
and  which  can  only  be  re-established  by  manures  of 
vegetable  or  animal  origin.  The  most  approved 
methods  of  preserving  and  applying  these  must 
therefore  be  among  the  objects  most  important  to 
the  agriculturist;  and  that  the  reader  may  better 
understand  the  reasons  of  the  practice  we  mean  to 
recommend,  we  begin  the  discussion  with  Kirwan's 
analysis  of  stable  manures.* 


1 

•o" 

18  . 

••           k. 

g 

0 

. 

«rj 

a 

a 

!fc 

*s 

M 

•£  g  j 

0 

a 

0 

-J1 

£ 

u 

J3       (  Cow  dung    1  „ 
^•3  <  Horse  dung  >.£ 
2      (Sheep  dung  \  *> 

3.75 
10.  2 
25.  0 

1.20 
1.50 
10.28 

0.15 
0.50 
29.  0 

2.  4 
3.  0 
29.  0 

0.  6 
0.21 
0.72 

92.80 
89.77 
68.00 

*  Tull  and  Du  Hamel's  doctrine,  that  frequent  ploughings 
and  sowings  superseded  the  necessity  of  manure,  is  no  longer 
held  by  any  well-instructed  agriculturist.  The  maxim  of  Oliver 
de  Serris  is  much  better  founded.  "  Le  bien  labourer,  le  bien 
fumer,  est  tout  le  secret  de  Pagriculture."  Till  well  and  manure 
well  is  the  whole  secret  of  agriculture. 


MANURES.  59 

The  elementary  parts  of  these  manures,  as  ex- 
hibited in  this  table,  sufficiently  indicate  the  mode 
of  preserving  them.  When  dropped  in  the  fields  and 
in  small  parcels  by  cattle,  they  exhibit  no  signs  of 
fermentation,  nor  undergo,  in  that  state,  any  degree 
of  chymical  decomposition  ;  but,  when  brought  to- 
gether, and  frequently  wetted  and  subjected  to  the 
action  of  atmospheric  air,  they  are  speedily  dis- 
solved and  give  out  much  gaseous  matter.  To  pre- 
vent the  escape  of  these  soluble  and  volatile  parts, 
two  things  are  necessary :  1st,  that  the  dung  be  col- 
lected in  a  reservoir  of  convenient  size,  and  walled 
and  paved  with  stones  ;  and,  2d,  that  a  layer  of  sand 
or  earth  be  occasionally  spread  over  the  surface  of 
the  dung.  The  former  will  prevent  filtration,  and 
the  latter  retain  the  gaseous  matter  so  useful  in 
vegetation,  and,  at  the  same  time,  augment  the  quan- 
tity of  manure.  To  prevent  an  excess  of  moisture, 
which  always  retards,  and  sometimes  prevents  de- 
composition altogether,  the  reservoir  should  be 
covered. 

The  application  of  manures  is  a  subject  of  more 
difficulty,  and  has  given  occasion  to  some  dispute. 
The  controverted  points  are, 

1st.  Whether  short  or  long  dung,  or,  in  other 
words,  whether  dung  thoroughly  rotted,  or  that 
which  has  but  begun  to  rot,  is  most  advantageous. 

2d.  Whether  dung  used  superficially,  or  ploughed 
deep  into  the  ground,  is  most  profitable. 

3d.  Whether  extraneous  matters  admitted  into 
the  dungheap  are  useful  or  otherwise. 

4th.  Whether  stable  manures  are  best  applied  di- 
rectly or  indirectly  to  wheat  crops. 

5th.  At  what  time  manures  are  best  applied ;  and, 

6th.  In  what  quantity. 

We  shall  discuss  these  points  separately  and 
briefly ;  and, 

1st.  Which  is  to  be  preferred,  long  or  short  dung  I 

The  discordance  in  practice,  as  well  as  in  opinion, 


60  AGRICULTURE. 

prevailing  on  this  question,  induced  some  scientific 
men  to  institute  a  series  of  experiments,  having  for 
their  object  a  full  and  regular  solution  of  it.  With 
this  view,  parcels  of  dung  (long  and  short)  were 
taken  from  the  same  stables  on  the  same  day,  and 
applied  to  crops  of  the  same  kind  growing  on  the 
same  fields.  The  result  perfectly  conformed  to  the- 
ory, and  was  similar  in  all  the  experiments.  Those 
parts  of  the  field  to  which  the  short  dung  was  ap- 
plied gave  the  best  crops  the  first  year  ;  but  those 
on  which  the  long  dung  had  been  laid  gave  the  best 
crops  the  second  and  third  years  ;  a  fact  which  au- 
thorizes the  conclusion,  that,  if  we  wish  to  obtain 
one  great  crop,  the  rotted  dung  is  best;  but  when 
we  look  to  more  permanent  improvement,  the  long 
dung  is  to  be  preferred. 

2d.  Which  is  the  better  practice,  to  spread  ma- 
nure on  the  surface,  or  lay  it  deeply  under  the 
ground ] 

In  favour  of  the  former  practice  it  has  been  con- 
tended, that  the  distribution  of  the  dung  could  be 
more  equally  made  on  the  surface  with  a  spade  than 
under  ground  with  a  plough  ;*  and  for  the  latter, 
that  all  tap-rooted  plants,  entering  far  into  the 
earth,  require  it  to  be  laid  deep ;  while  those  with 
fibrous  roots  will  be  sufficiently  benefited  by  its 
exhalations.  Both  modes,  however,  are  obviously 
bad.  We  have  seen  in  the  preceding  article  that 
dung,  to  become  the  aliment  of  plants,  must  under- 
go a  decomposition ;  and  that,  to  the  production  of 
this,  the  combined  action  of  air  and  water  is  indis- 
pensable. But,  if  the  manure  be  buried  deeply,  this 
action  cannot  reach  it,  and  the  dung  remains  a  ca- 
put  mortuum.  On  the  other  hand,  if  spread  super- 

*  The  English  are  said  to  have  a  machine  attached  to  the 
drill  that  goes  before  and  distributes  the  manure  at  the  neces- 
sary depth.  In  planting  potatoes  we  make  a  bed  of  dung  for 
the  plant.  Why  not  apply  the  same  reasoning  and  the  same 
practice  to  all  »eeding  of  the  ground  ? 


MANURES.  61 

ficially,  the  rains  dissolve  and  carry  away  many  of 
its  juices,  while  the  sun  and  the  wind  evaporate  the 
rest.  These  considerations  lead  to  the  true  rule  on 
this  head,  which  is  to  lay  it  three  or  four  inches  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  soil.  At  this  depth,  if  short 
dung,  its  action  will  be  most  vigorous  in  all  direc- 
tions ;  and  if  long  dung,  a  greater  depth  will,  as  al- 
ready suggested,  completely  destroy  all  action. 

3d.  Are  extraneous  matters,  as  horns,  hoofs, 
bones,  shells,  feathers,  leaves,  weeds,  &c.,  &c.,  to 
be  admitted  into  the  dung-heap  ? 

There  is,  perhaps,  nothing  in  either  theory  or 
practice  so  obviously  right,  that  it  may  not  be  dis- 
puted. The  principal  objection  made  to  these  mat- 
ters is,  that  they  do  not  decompose  equally ;  and 
that  those  ingredients  of  the  heap  which  are  slow- 
est in  decomposition,  retard  others,  which,  if  left  to 
themselves,  would  be  more  forward  in  this  process. 
This  objection  is  without  weight ;  for  we  have  seen 
that  long  or  unrotted  manure,  though  its  effect  be 
prompt,  is,  upon  the  whole,  more  favourable  to  cul- 
ture than  that  which  is  rotted.  The  difference  of 
time  in  decomposition  is  therefore  no  evil,  and  the 
augmentation  of  the  mass  is  a  great  good ;  besides 
that,  some  of  these  offals  are  the  most  powerful 
manures.  Horns  and  hoofs  are  compounded  of  al- 
bumen and  gelatine ;  bones,  of  the  phosphate  and 
carbonate  of  lime  and  gelatine ;  shells,  of  carbonate 
of  lime  and  animal  matter;  and  feathers  and  hair, 
of  albumen,  oil,  &c.,  &c.  Applied  to  the  roots,  they 
forward  the  growth  of  fruit-trees  more  than  any 
other  species  of  manure. 

4th.  Whether  stable  manures  are  best  applied, 
directly  or  indirectly,  to  wheat  crops  ? 

The  practice,  on  this  head,  is  different  in  different 
places.  In  France,  as  in  all  other  countries  where 
fallows  are  in  use,  the  dung  is  applied  directly  to 
the  wheat  crop ;  while  in  England,  where  the  rota- 
tion system  is  established,  it  is  applied  to  the  sum- 


64  AGRICULTURE. 

coal,  are  nearly  the  same,  and  rhombic  those  of 
lime  and  marl.  They  powerfully  attract  and  hold 
moisture  and  carbonic  acid,  and  they  hasten  the  de- 
composition of  stable  manures,  or  other  vegetable 
or  animal  product.  Their  action  is  most  favourable 
on  wet  and  cold  soils,  and  as  a  top-dressing  to  nat- 
ural meadows  and  turnip  crops. 

The  practice  of  paring  and  burning  the  surface  of 
the  earth  has  been  much  used,  and  warmly  recom- 
mended by  the  Irish ;  and  in  their  land  of  bogs,  as 
in  the  marshes  of  Holland,  where  infertility  arises 
from  excess  of  vegetable  matter,  it  may  be  useful ; 
but  to  burn  the  surfaces  of  sandy,  gravelly,  or  even 
of  dry  clay  soils,  would  be  to  lose  sight  of  all  sound 
theory. 

Soils  in  general  may  be  divided  into  two  kinds, 
sand  and  clay.  The  defect  of  the  one  is  want  of 
cohesion  between  its  parts ;  that  of  the  other,  an 
excessive  or  superabundant  cohesion.  But  vegeta- 
ble matter  is,  as  we  have  seen,  a  remedy  for  both ; 
and  to  accumulate  this  is  the  constant  endeavour  of 
every  enlightened  agriculturist.  Yet  are  we  advi- 
sed to  destroy  this  vegetable  matter  by  fire,  and  to 
substitute  for  it  a  small  portion  of  ashes,  as  more 
favourable  to  vegetation  than  the  soil  itself!  But 
in  what  will  these  ashes  differ  from  those  found  in 
our  chimneys,  and  of  which  enough  may  be  had  1 
In  nothing,  excepting  that  they  may  possess  some- 
what more  alkaline  salt  ;*  a  circumstance  which,  if 
the  subsoil  be  not  charged  with  oily  and  animal  mat- 
ter, will  be  more  injurious  than  useful. 

*  De  Saussure's  experiments  prove,  that  the  stems  of  trees 
(other  things  being  equal)  produce  less  of  this  salt  than  the 
branches,  the  branches  less  than  the  twigs,  and  the  twigs  less 
than  the  leaves.  M.  Perthuys  has  formed  a  table  of  the  relative 
alkaline  products  of  plants  and  trees.  By  this  table  it  appears 
that  the  leaves  and  stems  of  Indian  corn  give  to  the  quintal  eight 
pounds  thirteen  ounces,  those  of  oak  one  pound  five  ounces,  and 
those  of  pine  five  ounces. 


MANURES.  65 

But,  besides  the  consideration  of  getting  so  lit- 
tle, and  that  little  of  such  equivocal  character  and 
use,  what  do  we  lose  by  the  process  ?  If  we  ap- 
proach these  little  kilns,  we  find  them  emitting  a 
black  smoke,  which  cannot  be  entirely  consumed ; 
and  our  eyes  and  noses  are  assailed  by  some  stim- 
ulating and  ammoniacal  matter,  which  is  fast  es- 
caping, and  which  so  far  alters  the  atmospheric 
air  in  the  neighbourhood  as  to  render  it  difficult  of 
respiration.  Need  we  add  that  this  is  the  animal, 
oily,  and  gaseous  matter  essential  to  the  vegetable, 
and  highly,  important  to  vegetation  T  It  may  be 
that  the  ashes  obtained  may  give  one  or  two  good 
crops  of  turnips;  but  even  the  advocates  of  this 
practice  admit  that,  "  it  ruins  the  land  for  an  age ; 
and  hence  it  is  that  in  England,  tenants  are  restrain- 
ed from  paring  and  burning,  especially  towards  the 
close  of  their  lease."* 

Clay  burning  is  a  different  operation,  and  made 
with  different  views ;  not  for  the  production  of  ash- 
es or  salts,  which  may  operate  chymically,  but 
merely  (by  the  application  of  heat)  to  alter  the  tex- 
ture of  the  soil ;  to  give  to  it  an  artificial  division 
and  porosity  ;  to  render  what  was  cold  warm,  what 
was  wet  dry,  and  what  was  compact  granular. 
But  a  small  degree  of  heat  will  not  produce  these 
effects;  for,  unlike  the  stems  and  roots  of  plants, 
clay  is  not  itself  combustible  ;  and,  to  bring  it  to  the 
brick  state,  the  heat  applied  must  be  long,  contin- 
ued, and  great :  hence  it  follows,  that  the  practice 
becomes  objectionable  on  the  score  of  expense,  and 
the  more  so  as  burned  clay  has  no  possible  advan- 
tage over  the  much  cheaper  substances  of  sand, 
gravel,  and  pounded  limestone.  The  operation  of 
all  is  merely  mechanical,  and  exactly  in  proportion 
to  the  quantity  used. 

Our  partiality  for  green  crops  ploughed  into  the 

*  See  Cobbett,  part  second,  p.  168,  "  Year's  Residence  in  the 
United  States.'' 


66  AGRICULTURE. 

ground  as  manure  has  been  sufficiently  indicated, 
and  it  is  now  only  necessary  that  we  mention  the 
plants  best  calculated  for  this  purpose.  At  the  head 
of  these  we  place  buckwheat,  as  well  on  account  of 
cheapness  as  effect :  cheapness,  because  the  price  of 
the  seed,  which  is  the  only  additional  expense,  is 
below  consideration  ;  and  effect,  because  this  plant, 
while  growing,  is,  from  its  umbrageous  form,  a 
great  improver  of  the  soil,  both  by  stifling  weeds 
and  preventing  evaporation ;  and,  when  ploughed 
into  the  ground,  none  decomposes  more  rapidly, 
nor  has  any  a  more  powerful  effect  in  keeping  the 
earth  loose  and  open  to  the  action  of  light,  heat, 
air,  and  moisture,  all  of  which  are  indispensable  to 
vegetation.  "  I  know  no  plant,"  says  Rozier,  the 
great  French  agriculturist,  "  that  furnishes  a  better 
manure,  or  which  is  sooner  reduced  to  vegetable 
mould,  than  buckwheat."  When  cultivated  with 
this  view,  the  usual  quantity  of  seed  ought  to  be  in- 
creased, and  the  time  of  sowing  hastened,  so  as  to 
enable  you  to  have  two  crops  of  manure  the  same 
season,  and  before  the  sowing  of  wheat. 

The  lupine  (one  of  the  leguminous  family)  has 
been  long  and  profitably  employed  as  a  manure  in 
Spain,  Italy,  and  the  southern  province  of  France. 
Columella  directs  that  "it  be  sown  in  September, 
about  the  equinox,  so  that  it  may  attain,  before 
winter,  a  growth  that  will  enable  it  to  resist  wet  and 
frosty  weather,  which  it  particularly  dreads."  I 
need  not  remark  that  these  directions  are  not  cal- 
culated for  this  climate,  and  that  the  seed-time  foi 
the  lupine  here  is  the  20th  of  May.  The  properties 
which  recommend  it  as  a  manure  are  nearly  the 
same  as  those  which  belong  to  buckwheat.  It  is  a 
quick  grower,  and  has  numerous,  large,  and  succu- 
lent leaves.  While  growing  it  subsists  principally 
upon  the  air,  and,  when  buried,  decomposes  entirely 
and  rapidly. 

The  pea  tribe  has  the  next  place  in  this  list ;  but, 


TILLAGE.  >!7 

though  not  better  adapted  to  the  end  than  buck- 
wheat or  lupine,  it  is  more  capricious  than  they,  and 
requires  a  soil  of  better  staple  and  more  prepara- 
tion. The  seed  is  also  more  expensive.  Of  this 
tribe  the  yellow  vetching  (lathyrus  pratensis)  is  the 
species  to  be  preferred. 

Turnips  have  been  cultivated  in  England  with  the 
same  view,  but  the  practice  hasfy,ielded  to  another 
and  better  (which,  however,  is  not  suited  to  our 
climate),  feeding  them  off  in  the  winter  and  on  tht 
field. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

OP    TILLAGE,    AND    THE    PRINCIPLES    ON    WHICH    IT    13 
FOUNDED. 

TILLAGE  has  three  objects :  1st,  the  raising  of 
plants,  whose  seeds,  stems,  or  roots  may  be  neces- 
sary or  useful  to  man  and  the  animals  he  employs  ; 
2d,  the  improvement  of  the  soil,  by  laying  it  open 
to  those  atmospheric  influences  which  increase  its 
fertility  ;  and,  3d,  its  destruction  of  weeds  or  plants 
which  rise  spontaneously,  and  are  either  altogether 
unfit,  or  fit  only  in  a  small  degree,  for  the  nutrition 
of  men  and  cattle,  and  which,  if  left  to  themselves, 
would  stifle  or  starve  the  intended  crop. 

In  fulfilling  either  or  all  of  these  objects,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  surface  of  the  earth  must  be  broken 
and  divided  into  small  parts,  so  that  it  may  furnish 
a  bed  and  covering  for  the  seeds  sown,  enable  the 
plants  to  push  their  roots  into  the  soil,  and  draw 
from  it  a  portion  of  their  subsistence. 

To  accomplish  this  leading  intention,  the  division 
of  the  soil,  various  means  hare  been  employed.  Fos- 
6 


68  AGRICULTURE. 

sil,  animal,  and  vegetable  manures,  as  well  by  their 
mechanical  action  as  by  their  chymical  properties, 
promote  it;  as  do  sand,  pounded  limestone,  and 
water,  as  in  the  culture  of  the  rice ;  but  it  is  to  the 
spade  and  the  plough  we  must  look  for  that  degree 
of  efficiency,  without  which  the  earth  would  have 
remained  a  desert,  or  would  become  one.  Of  these, 
where  the  scale  ofrlabour  is  small,  as  in  garden  cul- 
ture, the  former  is  to  be  preferred;  but,  in  farm- 
ing, the  greater  expedition  of  the  latter  gives  it  a 
decided  advantage.  Our  remarks,  therefore,  will  be 
confined  to  the  operations  of  this  instrument ;  and 
particularly  to  such  as  have  given  occasion  to  dif- 
ferences in  opinion  among  practical  farmers. 

1st.  At  what  season  of  the  year,  spring,  summer,  or 
fall,  is  ploughing  best  performed,  in  relation  to  division 
and  improvement  of  the  soil,  and  the  destruction  of 
weeds  ? 

The  more  scientific  opinion  is  in  favour  of  fall 
ploughing ;  because  to  the  action  of  air  and  moist- 
ure it  adds  that  of  frost,  whose  septic  or  dividing 
quality  is  second  only  to  that  of  the  plough  itself. 
In  clay  soils  this  preparation  should  never  be  omit- 
ted ;  because  on  those  the  action  of  frost  is  great- 
est, and  because  one  ploughing  of  this  kind  may 
save  two  in  the  spring,  when  time  is  everything.* 
In  this  operation,  however,  we  must  not  forget  to 
ridge^  as  well  as  plough ;  and  care  must  be  taken 
that  our  furrows  have  sufficient  declination  to  car- 
ry off  surplus  water.  With  these  precautions,  clay 
ground  will  be  ready  early  in  the  spring  for  another 
ploughing ;  and  the  decomposition  of  the  sod  and 
weeds  turned  down  in  the  fall  will  be  nearly,  if 
not  altogether,  complete.! 

*  The  marsh  bean  grows  best  on  a  fall  ploughing  ;  and  oatt, 
well  harrowed,  will,  on  such  ploughing,  give  a  good  crop  with- 
out other  culture. 

t  Without  water  there 'is  no  decomposition,  and  much  water 
checks  and  prevents  it. 


TILLAGE.  69 

In  dry  and  warm  soils  these  advantages  are  less ; 
but  still  the  time  gained  for  spring  work  is  a  suffi- 
cient inducement  to  a  practice  that  economizes,  not 
merely  labour,  but  the  productive  powers  of  the 
earth  also,  by  soonest  enabling  us  to  shade  the  soil 
with  a  growing  crop.* 

3d.  What  number  of  ploughings,  preparatory  to  a 
crop,  is  necessary  or  proper  ? 

The  Romans  were  in  the  practice  of  multiplied 
ploughings.  This  appears  as  well  from  the  precepts 
of  Cato  as  from  the  opinion  of  Columella,  that  "  til- 
lage, which  does  not  leave  the  earth  in  a  state  of 
dust  and  render  the  use  of  harrows  unnecessary, 
has  not  been  well  performed."  Tull  and  his  disci- 
ples carry  the  doctrine  still  farther,  and  believe  that 
frequent  ploughings  enable  us  to  dispense  with  even 
the  use  of  manures.  This,  however,  is  extravagant  : 
it  is  certain  that  the  plough  can  do  much,  but  it  is 
equally  certain  that  there  is  much  it  cannot  do. 

Agriculture,  like  other  business  having  profit  for 
its  object,  is  a  subject  of  calculation ;  its  labour  must 
be  regulated  by  its  end  ;  and  the  moment  the  expense 
of  this  transcends  the  profit,  it  may  be  improvement, 
but  it  ceases  to  be  farming.  When,  therefore,  we 
hear  of  six  ploughings  preparatory  to  a  wheat  crop, 
we  conclude  either  that  the  plough  will  soon  stop, 
or  that  it  belongs  to  one  of  the  dilettanti,  who  thinks 
it  beneath  him  to  count  the  cost.  In  our  own  prac- 
tice, we  find  that  spring  crops  of  the  cereal  gramina 
succeed  best  on  one  fall  ploughing,  well  ridged  and 
furrowed,  and  with  one  cross-ploughing  in  the 
spring ;  and  that  spring  and  summer  crops  of  the 

*  Those  who  have  any  doubts  about  the  importance  of  shade, 
have  but  to  look  at  the  effects  of  a  brush-heap,  or  other  collec- 
tion of  small  bodies  admitting  air,  heat,  and  moisture,  during 
the  spring  or  summer  months.  Under  such  collections  he  will 
find  a  much  more  vigorous  vegetation  than  in  the  uncovered 
parts  of  the  field  :  the  cause  of  this  effect  is  that  the  brush  pre 
vents  evaporation. 


70  AGRICULTURE. 

leguminous  and  cruciform  families  form  the  best 
possible  preparation  for  winter  crops,  and  render 
unnecessary  more  than  one  additional  ploughing. 
After  all,  any  proper  answer  to  this  question  mu^t 
necessarily  be  qualified  by  considerations  of  soil, 
weather,  season,  crop,  and  culture  ;  influences  which 
cannot  but  exist  in  all  cases,  and  over  which  we 
have  no  control.  Wheat,  for  instance,  requires 
more  preparatory  ploughing  than  rye,  and  rye  more 
than  oats.  Clay  ground  demands  more  tillage  than 
calcareous  earth,  and  calcareous  earth  moj-e  than 
sand.  Wet  or  dry  weather  makes  frequent  plough- 
ings,  according  to  circumstances,  either  useful,  in- 
jurious, or  impracticable  ;  and  the  shade  of  a  horse- 
hoed  crop  is,  perhaps,  in  itself,  of  more  importance 
to  that  which  succeeds,  than  would  be  the  fallowing 
of  a  whole  summer. 

3d.  What  depth  of  ploughing  is  most  to  be  recom- 
mended ? 

This  question,  though  less  complicated  than  the 
last,  requires,  like  it,  an  answer  qualified  by  circum- 
stances. Tap-rooted  plants  require  deeper  tillage 
than  others :  fall  ploughings  may  be  deeper  than 
those  of  spring,  and  spring  than  those  of  summer. 
If  the  vegetable  soil  be  deep,  deep  ploughings  will 
not  injure  it;  but  if  it  be  shallow,  such  ploughings 
will  bring  up  part  of  the  subsoil,  which  is  always 
infertile,  until  it  receive  new  principles  from  the  atmo- 
sphere. "  They  who  pretend,"  says  Arthur  Young, 
"  that  the  underlayer  of  earth  is  as  proper  for  ve- 
getation as  the  upper,  maintain  a  paradox,  refuud 
both  by  reason  and  experience." 

Where,  however,  it  becomes  part  of  your  object 
to  increase  the  depth  of  the  surface  soil,  deep 
ploughing  is  indispensable;  and  in  this,  as  in  many 
other  cases,  we  must  submit  to  present  inconve- 
nience for  the  advantage  of  future  benefit.  But  even 
here  it  is  laid  down  as  a  rule,  that,  "  inproportion  as 


TILLAGE.  71 

you  deepen  your  ploughings,you  increase  the  necessity 
for  manures."* 

"From  six  to  eight  inches  may  be  taken  as  the 
ordinary  depth  of  sufficient  ploughing."!  And, 

4th-  Of  the  different  modes  of  ploughing  (level  o? 
ridge  ploughing),  which  is  to  be  preferred  ? 

This  question  admits  no  absolute  answer.  We 
have  already  suggested  the  use  of  the  latter  mode 
in  stiff,  heavy,  wet  clays ;  and,  in  our  opinion,  all 
ground  in  which  clay  predominates,  whatever  be 
the  culture,  should  be  made  to  take  this/orm:  be- 
cause it  powerfully  tends  to  drain  the  soil,  and  car- 
ry off  from  the  roots  of  the  growing  plants  that  su- 
perfluous water,  which,  left  to  itself,  would  seri- 
ously affect  both  the  quality  and  the  quantity  of 
their  products.J  In  sandy,  porous,  and  dry  soils, 
on  the  other  hand,  level  ploughing  is  to  be  prefer- 
red ;  because  ridging  such  soils  would  but  increase 
that  want  of  cohesion  which  is  their  natural  defect. 

A  loamy  soil,  which  is  a  medium  between  these 
two  extremes,  ought,  in  a  dry  climate,  to  be  culti- 
vated in  the^Zfitf  way,  that  it  may  the  better  retain 
moisture ;  and  in  a  wet  climate,  in  ridges,  that  it 
may  the  sooner  become  dry. 

*  Young.  t  Idem. 

t  It  has  been  objected  to  ridge  ploughing  that  it  accumulates 
the  good  soil  on  the  crowns  of  ridges,  and  impoverishes  the 
sides  and  furrows.  These  objections  are  obviated  by  narrow 
and  low  ridges,  which  alternate  every  crop  with  the  furrows. 


72  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

OP   A   ROTATION   OF   CROPS,   AND     THE    PRINCIPLES   OH 
WHICH    IT    IS    FOUNDED. 

To  this  branch  of  our  subject  we  invite  particu- 
lar attention ;  because,  in  our  opinion,  it  forms  the 
basis  of  all  successful  agriculture.  Whatever  pains 
we  take,  whatever  expenses  we  incur,  in  collecting 
instruments  of  husbandry,  in  accumulating  and  ap- 
plying manures,  and  in  tilling  the  earth,  all  is  to 
little  purpose,  unless  to  these  we  superadd  a  succes- 
sion of  [crops,  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  to  the 
laws  of  the  climate,  and  to  the  physical  character  and 
commercial  value  of  the  article  raised.  Pease  will 
vegetate  on  wet  cotton,  and  wheat  in  pure  sand ; 
Indian  corn  will  grow  in  high  northern  latitudes, 
and  the  apple  may  be  found  near  the  equator.  We 
have  seen  sainfoin  struggling  in  wet  clay,  and  aquat- 
ic plants  on  the  top  of  an  arid  mountain ;  but  all 
indicated  the  violence  done  to  nature,  and  present- 
ed only  specimens  diminutive  in  bulk  and  deficient 
in  quality.  The  influence  of  markets  on  the  value 
of  produce  is  as  little  to  be  denied  as  that  of  soil 
and  climate.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  great  cities 
table  vegetables  are  of  much  more  value  than  wheat 
or  rye ;  but,  remote  from  markets,  wheat  and  rye 
have  the  advantage,  because,  being  more  valuable  in 
proportion  to  bulk  and  weight,  they  bear  better  the 
expense  of  transportation. 

With  this  general  view  of  the  subject,  we  pro- 
ceed to  examine,  1st,  the  practice  of  Europe ;  and, 
2d,  the  rotation  best-adapted  to  our  own  soil,  merid- 
ian, and  markets.  And, 

1  st.   Of  the  practice  of  Europe. 


ROTATION    OF    CROPS.  73 

It  was  long  since  discovered*  that  the  soil,  when 
left  to  itself,  was  never  either  exhausted,  or  tired, 
or  idle  ;  but  that,  however  stripped  or  denuded  by 
man  and  the  animals  he  employs,  it  hastens  to  cover 
itself  with  a  variety  of  plants,  of  different  and  even 
opposite  characters  ;  that  some  of  these  have  a  ten- 
dency to  render  the  earth  more  compact,  while 
others  have  the  effect  of  opening  and  dividing  it ; 
that  some,  from  peculiar  structure  of  roots,  stems, 
and  leaves,  derive  most  of  their  nourishment  from 
the  earth ;  while  others,  differently  formed,  draw  it 
principally  from  the  atmosphere ;  and,  lastly,  that 
in  these  voluntary  products  there  is  a  continual 
and  nearly  regular  succession  of  plants  differently 
organized.  These  observations,  carefully  made  and 
no  longer  doubted,  and  others  leading  to  the  same 
or  similar  conclusions,  first  suggested  the  useful- 
ness of  taking  nature  as  our  guide,  and  of  conform- 
ing our  artificial  crops  to  the  rules  which  obviously 
governed  her  spontaneous  productions.  The  effect 
was  such  as  was  expected,  and  for  more  than  half 
a  century  the  rotation  system  has  formed  the  true 
test  of  agricultural  improvement  in  every  variety 
of  soil  and  climate.  Whenever  it  has  been  adopt- 
ed, the  art  is  found  in  a  state  of  prosperous  progres- 
sion; whenever  neglected  or  rejected,  it  is  either 
stationary  or  retrogade.  Yet,  in  the  face  of  a  fact, 
carrying  with  it  such  conclusive  evidence,  the  bulk 
of  agriculturists  continue  to  resist  this  cheap  and 
obvious  means  of  improvement,  and  pertinaciously 
adhere  to  a  system  (that  of  fallows)  which  con- 
demns to  annual  sterility  one  fourth  part  of  the 
earth ;  and  which  prefers  four  months'  unproductive 
labour  to  abundant  harvests  and  nutritious  crops ! 

*  Virgil,  who  was  a  philosopher  as  well  as  a  poet,  appears  to 
have  thoroughly  understood  this  branch  of  natural  history : 
"  mutatis  quiescunt  feetibus  arva."  The  true  repose  of  the  earth 
is  in  a  change  of  its  productions. 


74  AGRICULTURE. 

But  from  this  display  of  folly  let  us  iurn  to  one  of 
wisdom. 

On  the  rotation  system,  the  whole  arable  part  of 
a  farm  is  divided  into  four,  six,  or  eight  fields,  and 
subjected  to  a  course  of  crops  denominated,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  these  divisions,  the  short,  the 
medium,  or  the  long  course.  In  constructing  these 
courses,  however,  whether  long,  middling,  or  short, 
the  utmost  attention  is  paid  to  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  viz.,  in  all  soils  more  wet  than  dry,  more  com- 
pact than  porous,  more  hard  than  friable,  the  course* 
is  made  up  of  the  following  plants:  Wheat,  oats^ 
buckwheat,  the  graminal  grasses,  beans,  velchlings, 
clover,  cabbages,  and  chicory.  In  soils  of  an  oppo- 
site character,  dry,  porous,  and  friable,  the  plants 
from  which  to  choose  are  rye,  spelts,  barley,  pota- 
toes, turnips,*  lupines,  Indian  corn,  clover,  sainfoin,  and 
many  of  the  pasture  grasses.  In  loams,  which  are 
nearly  an  equal  mixture  of  sand,  clay,  and  decom- 
posed vegetables,  the  choice  of  plants  is  much  en- 
larged ;  embracing  what  is  more  peculiarly  proper 
for  both  sand  and  clay,  and  having,  besides,  the  fol- 
lowing plants  from  which  to  select :  Rice,  millet, 
sorghum,  or  African  millet,  lucerne,  indigo,  cotton, 
hops,  tobacco,  madder,  hemp,  flax,  &c.,  &c.  The  fol- 
lowing cases  will  sufficiently  illustrate  the  princi- 
ples on  which  they  rest,  viz.,  Never  to  select  for  a 
crop  plants  not  adapted  to  the  soil ;  and  never,  in  any 
soil,  to  permit  two  crops  of  the  same  species  or  kinds  to 
follow  each  other. 

2d.  Of  the  rotation  best  adapted  to  our  own  soil, 
meridian,  and  markets. 

Previously  to  entering  upon  this  subject,  it  may 
not  be  amiss  to  glance  at  the  practice  hitherto  prev- 

*  We  here  speak  of  the  white  turnip.  The  Ruta  Saga,  or 
Swedish  turnip,  is  classed  by  French  agriculturists  among  the 
products  of  strong,  substantial  clay  soils.  In  the  next  chapter 
we  shall  speak  of  the  culture  of  some  particular  plants,  and 
among  these,  of  the  Swedish  turnip. 


ROTATION    OP    CROPS.  75 

alent  among  us.  What  this  was  in  1801  may  be 
seen  in  the  answer  of  an  English  gentleman  and 
traveller  (Mr.  Strickland)  to  certain  queries  of  the 
British  Board  of  Agriculture  in  relation  to  the  state 
of  husbandry  here.  After  remarking  that  New- 
England  was  not  a  corn  country,  and  had  little  to  do 
with  the  plough,  and  that  New- York  was  then,  and 
would  continue  to  be,  the  granary  of  America,  he 
proceeds  to  divert  his  British  readers  with  the  fol- 
lowing details  :  "  The  usual  course  of  crops  in  this 
state  (New- York),  is,  first  year,  maize  (Indian* 
corn) ;  second,  rye  or  wheat ;  third,  flax  or  oats  ;  and 
then  a  repetition  of  the  same  as  long  as  the  land 
will  bear  anything  ;  after  which  it  is  laid  by  to  rest. 
A  Dutchman's  course  on  the  Mohawk  is,  first  year, 
wheat ;  second,  pease  ;  third,  wheat ;  fourth,  oats  or 
flax  ;  and,  fifth,  Indian  corn.  In  Dutchess  county 
the  rotation  is,  first,  wheat;  second  and  third,  pas- 
ture without  seed;  and,  fourth,  Indian  corn,  or  flax, 
or  oats,  or  mixed  crops."  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
Delaware,  and  Maryland  may  be  classed  together, 
from  a  resemblance  of  climate,  soil,  and  mode  of 
culture  ;  and  here  we  have,  "  first  year,  Indian  corn ; 
second,  wheat ;  third  and  fourth,  rubbish  pasture. 
Clover  is,  however,  beginning  to  be  introduced  in 
some  such  course  as  the  following:  First,  wheat- 
second,  Indian  corn;  third,  wheat;  fourth  and  fifth, 
clover." 

Two  exceptions  are  noticed,  however,  to  this 
system :  1st.  In  the  German  settlements  in  Penn- 
sylvania, where,  from  more  attention  or  more  skill, 
"  the  wheat  crop  averages  eighteen  bushels  to  the 
acre,  where  twenty-five  bushels  are  frequent,  and 
instances  of  thirty  not  wanting:  and,2d.  In  the  pen- 
insula of  Maryland  and  Delaware,  where  the  rota- 
tion of  Indian  corn,  wheat,  and  rubbish  pasture  has 
reduced  the  average  produce  to  six  bushels  per 
acre  ;  in  some  instances  not  more  than  two  bushels 
are  obtained,  and  much  is  so  bad  as  to  be  ploughed  up 
again." 


76  AGRICULTURE. 

"  In  Virginia  the  usual  crops  are  Indian  corn  and 
wheat  alternately,  as  long  as  the  land  will  produce 
them ;  and,  in  parts  where  tobacco  is  cultivated, 
several  crops  of  it  are  taken  in  succession,  before 
any  grain  is  sown.  No  one  states  the  average  of 
that  extensive  flat  country  in  Virginia,  lying  below 
the  head  of  tide- water,  at  more  than  five  or  six 
bushels ;  and  in  those  fertile  and  beautiful  valleys 
among  the  mountains,  in  which  ignorant  cultivators 
have  not  yet  resided  sufficiently  long  to  have  en- 
tirely exhausted  the  soil,  the  produce  may  not  be 
less  than  twelve  bushels  the  acre." 

These  specimens  of  agricultural  skill  will  not  be 
adduced  as  proof  of  the  favourite  national  position, 
that  "  we  are  the  most  enlightened  people  on  the  face 
of  the  globe ;"  and  the  less  so,  as  a  lapse  of  eighteen 
years  has  not  entirely  weaned  us  from  ancient 
habits ;  for  neither  on  the  Maryland  peninsula,  nor 
in  Eastern  Virginia,  is  there  any  material  alteration 
in  their  mode  of  culture,  excepting  what  may  have 
arisen  from  the  fact  that,  having  no  more  fresh  land 
to  exhaust,  they  are  now  obliged  to  recur  to  old  field, 
and  are,  of  course,  annually  suffering  the  new  and 
increased  penalties  of  former  improvidence.  On 
the  western  shore  of  Maryland,  in  the  northern 
parts  of  Delaware,  and  in  Pennsylvania,  New-Jer- 
sey, and  New- York,  the  state  of  things  is  better; 
clover  has  been  substituted  for  (what  Mr.  Strickland 
calls)  rubbish  pasture,  and  the  root  husbandry  is 
encroaching  on  summer  fallows ;  which  we  regard 
as  a  decisive  step  towards  a  regular  and  judicious 
rotation  of  crops. 

After  this  brief  statement  of  the  past  and  present 
state  of  home  agriculture,  let  us  anticipate  the  fu- 
ture. We  cannot  believe  that,  favoured  as  we  arc 
with  a  temperate  climate,  a  productive  soil,  an  in- 
quiring, reflecting,  and  independent  yeomanry,  and 
civil  institutions  which  favour  and  protect  all  the 
developments  of  industry  and  genius,  we  shall  long 


PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.     77 

remain  behind  the  serfs  of  Tuscany,  the  tenants  of 
England,  or  the  peasants  of  Flanders.  But,  to  rival 
these,  we  must  follow  their  example ;  we  must  mul- 
tiply the  means  of  subsisting  cattle ;  because  these 
will,  in  their  turn,  give  manures,  and  manures  will 
quicken  and  invigorate  the  soil  for  the  production 
of  articles  of  the  greatest  value  and  the  highest 
price.  It  is  on  this  simple  basis  that  we  offer  the 
following  tables  of  rotation  of  crops,  adapted  to  our 
own  circumstances : 

Medium  course  in  sandy  soils:  1st  year,  potatoes 
dunged ;  2d,  rye,  with  turnips  after  harvest  consu- 
med on  the  fields ;  3d,  oats  and  clover,  or  barley 
and  clover ;  4th,  clover ;  5th,  wheat,  with  turnips 
after  harvest  consumed  on  the  field  ;  and,  6th,  pease, 
or  lupines,  or  lentils.  We  have,  by  this  course, 
eight  crops  in  six  years,  and  five  of  these  ameliora- 
ting crops. 

Medium  course  in  loamy  soils  :  1st  year,  pota- 
toes dunged ;  2d,  wheat,  with  turnips  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding course  ;  3d,  Indian  corn  and  pumpkins ;  4th, 
barley  and  clover ;  5th,  clover  ;  6th,  wheat  and  tur- 
nips as  before.  In  this  course  we  have  nine  crops 
in  six  years,  five  of  which  are  ameliorating  crops. 

Medium  course  in  clay  soils ;  1st  year,  oats  with 
clover  ;  2d,  clover  ;  3d,  wheat ;  4th,  beans  dunged ; 
5th,  wheat ;  6tb,  the  yellow  vetchling. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

OF   THE  PLANTS  RECOMMENDED   FOR  A  COURSE   OF    CROPS 
IN  THE  PRECEDING  CHAPTER,  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

THESE  are  wheat,  rye,  barley,  Indian  corn,  oats, 
buckwheat,  pease,  beans,  turnips,  potatoes,  cabba- 


78  AGRICULTURE. 

ges,  clover,  and  chicory  :  but  we  shall  take  them  in 
the  order  in  which  they  stand  in  the  proposed  rota- 
tion of  crops ;  and, 

I.   Of  the  potato. 

This  plant  is  a  native  of  America,  and,  like  other 
valuable  things,  has  had  violent  enemies  and  zealous 
friends.  When  first  introduced  into  France,  it  was 
subjected  to  the  imperfect  methods  of  analysis  of 
that  day,  and,  being  supposed  to  yield  some  delete- 
rious matter,  was  even  proscribed  by  the  govern- 
ment But  time,  which  rarely  fails  to  do  justice  to 
the  injured,  has  re-established  the  character  of  the 
potato  there ;  and  with  the  increased  reputation 
of  being  the  "  manna  of  the  poor"*  of  standing  as  an 
article  of  food  next  to  bread,f  and  far  before  cab- 
bages, carrots,  or  turnips  ;J  and  yielding,  by  the 
acre,  a  crop  of  greater  profit  and  more  nutritive 
matter  than  either  wheat  or  barley. fy  Nor  is  this 
its  whole  praise ;  for,  besides  its  value  as  food,  it  is 
of  all  vegetables  that  which,  from  the  number, 
shape,  and  size  of  its  roots,  forms  the  best  prepara- 
tion for  subsequent  crops. j|  Of  this  valuable  plant 
botanists  count  more  than  sixty  varieties  and  twelve 
species,  which,  for  agricultural  purposes,  may,  how- 
ever, be  reduced  to  three;  the  red,  the  white,  and 
that  called  by  the  French  the  quaranlaine,  or  forty 
days'  potato.  The  last  is  the  least  prolific;  but 

*  Dictionnaire  de  PIndustrie,  art.  Pomme  de  terre,. 

t  By  the  experiments  of  Vaugelin  and  Percy,  80  parts  out  of 
100  of  bread  are  nutritive ;  of  the  potato,  25,  or  nearly  ont< 
fourth. 

t  "  Six  chilogrammes  de  pommes  de  terre  equivaloient  50 
chilogrammes  de  navet." — Yvart.  Six  kilograms  [the  kilo- 
gram is  2  Ibs.  3oz.  5  dr.  avoird.]  of  potatoes  are  equal  to  50  kil 
ograms  of  carrots. 

$  200  bushels,  a  medium  crop  per  acre  of  potatoes,  are,  at  3s 
per  bushel,  equal  to  seventy  five  dollars  ;  and  a  medium  crop 
of  wheat,  15  bushels  per  acre,  at  even  16s.  per  bushel,  is  but 
30  dollars  ;  difference  per  acre,  $35. 

I!  Parmentier  of  the  French  Institute. 


PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.      79 

may,  notwithstanding,  deserve  the  preference  with 
cultivators  near  great  cities,  since,  besides  being  the 
first  in  the  market,  they  may  be  made  to  give  a 
second  crop.  The  other  two  are  supposed  to  affect 
different  kinds  of  soil ;  the  red  preferring  clay,  and 
the  white  sand  or  loam.  Of  the  former  there  is  a 
variety  more  productive  than  any  other  of  either 
species,  and  which  is  known,  and,  we  think,  de- 
graded, by  the  name  of  the  hog  potato.  Of  this 
variety,  without  any  peculiar  care,  we  have  raised 
one  hundred  and  eight  bushels  on  one  quarter  of 
an  acre. 

Two  ways  are  employed  to  propagate  the  pota- 
to; 1st,  by  sowing  the  seed;  and,  2d,  by  planting 
the  root.  By  the  former  method  we  obtain  new 
varieties  or  revive  old  ones ;  but,  as  it  requires  three 
years  to  bring  these  to  perfection,  it  follows  that  the 
other  method,  which  continues  the  species  you 
plant,  and  in  the  perfection  in  which  you  plant  them, 
is  alone  resorted  to  for  a  crop.  The  product  is 
small,  or  great,  or  enormous,  according  to  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil  and  the  labour  bestowed  upon  its 
cultivation.  We  have  never  seen  a  larger  product 
from  the  acre  than  four  hundred  bushels ;  but  there 
are  records  of  high  authority  which  give  much 
larger  crops  ;  and  from  which,  in  justice  to  our  sub- 
ject, we  offer  the  following  extracts: 

"  At  Altingham,  in  England,  a  sandy  soil  gave 
700  bushels  per  acre.  At  Kirklatham,  a  similar  soil 
gave  580  bushels  ;  and  a  blach  rich  loam,  1166 
bu>hels."* 

We  need  hardly  remark,  that  such  immense  pro- 
ducts were  procured  only  by  the  most  careful  and 
well-timed  cultivation,  which  we  shall  now  proceed 

*  See  vol.  xiii.,  p.  114,  of  the  British  Annual  Register.  Some 
persons  have  imagined  that,  by  cutting  the  flowers  of  the  potato, 
the  crop  may  be  increased,  and  analogy  forms  the  opinion.  The 
procreative  powers  of  the  plant  are  thus  diverted  from  the  ap- 
ple and  concentrated  in  the  bulb. 


80  AGRICULTURE. 

to  indicate  under  three  different  heads  :  1st,  the 
preparation  of  the  soil ;  2d.  the  choice  of  plants  and 
mode  of  planting  ;  and,  lastly,  the  treatment  of  the 
growing  crop. 

1st.  Of  the  preparation  of  the  soil. 

Give  your  field  intended  for  potatoes  a  goo*d  fall 
ploughing,  and  in  ridges  if  the  soil  be  clay.  Leave 
it  rough  and  open  to  the  influences  of  the  frost  du- 
ring the  winter,  and  as  early  in  the  spring  as  you 
discover  in  it  the  marks  of  vegetation,  harrow  and 
roll  it.  When  the  weeds  show  themselves  a  second 
time,  carry  out  your  manure,  cover  the  fields  with 
it,  and  plough  it  under.  If  the  quantity  of  manure 
be  insufficient  to  cover  the  whole  surface,  apply  it  to 
the  furrows  only ;  and  if,  as  may  happen,  it  be  even 
insufficient  for  this  purpose,  then  furrow  both  ways, 
manure  the  angles  of  intersection,  and  set  your  po- 
tatoes in  them. 

2d.  Of  the  choice  of  plants  and  mode  of  plant- 
ing. 

Some  economists  begin  by  paring  the  potato, 
and  planting  only  the  skins;  others,  less  saving, 
cut  the  potatoes  into  slices,  leaving  a  single  eye  to 
each  slice ;  and  a  third  class,  almost  as  provident 
as  the  other  two,  are  careful  to  pick  out  the  dwarfs, 
and  reasonable  enough  to  expect  from  them  a  pro- 
geny of  giants.  These  practices  cannot  be  too  much 
censured  or  too  soon  abandoned,  because  directly 
opposed  both  by  reason  and  experience.  In  other 
cases  vre  take  great  pains,  and  sometimes  incur 
great  expense,  to  obtain  the  best  seed.  In  the  cul- 
tivation of  wheat  we  reject  all  small,  premature, 
worm-eaten,  or  otherwise  imperfect  grains ;  in  pre- 
paring for  a  crop  of  Indian  corn  we  select  the  best 
ears,  and  even  strip  from  these  the  small  or  ill- sha- 
ped grains  at  the  ends  of  the  cob ;  so  also  in  plant- 
ing beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  and  turnips,  the  largest 
and  finest  are  selected  for  seed.  The  reason  of  all 
this  is  obvious.  Plants,  like  animals,  are  rendered 


PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.       81 

most  perfect  by  selecting  the  finest  individuals  of 
the  species  from  which  to  breed.  Away,  then,  with 
such  miserable  economy  ;  and,  instead  of  planting 
skins,  or  slices,  or  dwarfs,  take  for  seed  the  best 
and  largest  potatoes,  those  having  in  them  the  most 
aliment  for  the  young 'plants;*  place  them  in  your 
furrows  ten  or  twelve  inches  apart,  and  cover  them 
carefully  with  earth. 

3d.  Of  the  treatment  of  the  growing  crop. 

As  soon  as  the  potatoes  begin  to  show  themselves 
weeds  will  also  appear;  a  good  harrowing  will  then 
save  much  future  labour,  and  the  injury  it  does  the 
potato  will  be  little  or  none.  In  a  short  time  an- 
other weeding  will  become  necessary;  but  your 
crop  having  now  obtained  some  inches  in  height, 
you  can  no  longer  safely  use  the  common  harrow ; 
but,  instead  of  this,  the  small  one  of  triangular  form, 
so  made  as  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  width  of 
the  intervals.  This  labour  may  be  occasionally  re- 
peated, if  necessary,  until  the  potatoes  begin  to 
flower,  when  the  horse-hoe  must  be  substituted  for 
the  harrow.  The  effects  of  this  instrument  (the 
horse-hoe)  are  to  extirpate  the  weeds,  to  divide  and 
loosen  the  soil,  and  to  throw  over  the  potatoes  an 
additional  covering  of  earth. 

The  harvesting  and  preserving  of  potato  crops 
are  processes  well  known  in  this  country.  With 
regard  to  the  latter,  however,  we  would  suggest 
whether  stacking  potatoes  on  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
and  with  a  narrow  base,  is  not  a  better  mode  than 
burying  them  in  the  ground.  Fifteen  bushels  will 
be  enough  for  one  stack,  which  must  be  well  cov- 
ered with  straw  and  earth,  and  trenched  around  its 
whole  circumference,  to  carry  off  dissolving  snows 
and  rain-water. 

II.   Of  rye. 

*  The  interior  of  the  potato  forms  the  fecvla,  which  subsists 
the  young  plants. 


82  AGRICULTURE. 

This  grain,  though  of  the  same  family  with  wheat, 
is  less  valuable.  A  bushel  of  rye  weighs  less,  and 
gives  less  flour,  and  of  worse  qu.ility,  than  a  bushel 
of  wheat.  Still  there  are  circumstances  which,  as 
an  object  of  culture,  may  give  it  the  preference ; 
1st,  it  grows  well  in  soils  where  wheat  cannot  be 
raised  ;  2d,  it  bears  a  much  greater  degree  of  cold 
than  wheat ;  3d,  it  goes  through  all  the  phases  of 
vegetation  in  a  shorter  period,  and,  of  course,  ex- 
hausts the  soil  less  ;*  4th,  if  sown  early  in  the  fall, 
it  gives  a  great  deal  of  pasture,  without  much  even- 
tual injury  to  the  crop;  and,  5th,  its  produce,  from 
an  equal  surface,  is  one  sixth  greater  than  that  of 
wheat.  These  circumstances  render  it  peculiarly 
valuable  for  poor  soils  and  poor  people,  for  mount- 
ains of  great  elevation,  and  for  high  northern  lati- 
tudes, f 

Its  use,  as  food  for  horses,  is  known  as  well  in 
this  country  as  in  Europe.  The  grain  and  straw, 
chopped  and  mixed,  form  the  principal  horsefood 
in  Pennsylvania;  and  in  Germany,  the  postillions 
are  often  seen  slicing  a  black  and  hard  rye  bread, 
called  benpournikel,  for  their  horses ;  and  the  same 
practice  prevails  in  Belgium  and  Holland. 

Its  conversion  into  whiskey  is  a  use  less  appro- 
ved by  reason  and  patriotism. 

The  species  of  this  grain  cultivated  here  are  two, 
the  black  and  the  white ;  for  spring  rye,  though  often 
mistaken  for  a  species,  is  but  a  variety  produced  by 
time  and  culture,  and  restored  again  to  its  former 
character  and  habits  by  a  similar  process.^ 

*  We  have  seen  a  field  bear  rye  several  years  in  succession 
without  manure,  and  the  last  crop  was  much  the  best..  This 
fact  is  one  of  those  which  tend  to  discredit  theory. 

t  Without  rye  the  northern  part  of  Russia  would  be  scarcely 
habitable. 

J  Spring  rye,  sown  in  the  fall,  will  give  a  tolerable  crop : 
winter  rye,  sown  in  the  spring,  a  very  bad  one :  which  shows 
that  the  nature  of  the  plant  requires  a  slow  rather  than  a  quick 
vegetation. 


PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.      83 

According  to  the  course  of  crops  detailed  in  our 
last  chapter,  potatoes,  in  a  sandy  soil,  precede  rye. 
The  ploughing,  harrowing,  and  manuring  given  to 
that  crop,  will  therefore  make  part  of  the  prepara- 
tion necessary  for  this.  After  harvesting  the  pota- 
toes, crossplough  the  ground,  and  sow  and  harrow 
in  the  rye ;  taking  care,  as  in  all  other  cases,  that 
the  seed  be  carefully  selected  and  thorougly  wash- 
ed in  lime-water,  as  the  means  best  calculated  to 
prevent  the  ergot ;  a  disease  to  which  it  is  most  lia- 
ble, and  which  is  supposed  to  be  occasioned  by  too 
great  humidity.* 

Rye  is  not  exempt  from  the  attacks  of  insects, 
but  suffers  less  from  them  than  either  wheat  or  bar- 
ley. Whenever  the  straw  of  winter  rye  becomes 
yellow,  shining,  or  flinty,  and  circulates  no  more 
j«|kes,  nature  gives  the  signal  for  harvest,  and  no 
time  should  be  lost  in  obeying  it.  "  Cut  two  days 
loo  soon  rather  than  one  day  too  late"  was  among 
the  precepts  of  Cato  ;  which,  if  adopted  here,  would 
save  much  grain,  terminate  the  harvest  about  the. 
10th  of  July,  and  give  abundant  time  to  turn  down 
the  stubble  and  sow  the  crop  next  in  succession. 

III.    Turnips. 

These  are  said  to  be  natives  of  the  seacoast  of 
the  north  of  Europe,  where  they  are  found  growing 
spontaneously.  There  are  eight  species  and  many 
varieties ;  but,  as  they  have  all  the  same  character 
and  uses,  and  require  nearly  the  same  treatment, 
we  shall  only  speak  of  the  white  turnip  and  the 
yellow. 

Two  methods  of  cultivation  have  been  pursued, 
according  to  the  plan  either  of  turning  them  down 
as  manure,  or  of  consuming  them  on  the  field  or  in 
the  stable  by  sheep  or  cattle.  In  the  first  case,  the 
harrow  is  used  instead  of  the  plough  ;  and,  even  upon 
light,  porous  soil,  is  a  pretty  good  substitute.  Ths 

*  See  Tessier  on  the  Diseases  of  Plaots. 

7 


84  AGRICULTURE. 

seed  is  sown  after  the  harrow,  and  too  frequently 
left  to  its  own  protection.  In  the  other  case,  the 
plough  is  first  used,  and  after  it  the  harrow ;  a 
method  much  to  be.  preferred,  as  the  difference  of 
;rops  will  more  than  pay  the  difference  of  labour, 
the  only  advantage  claimed  by  those  who  advocate 
and  adopt  the  first  method. 

Our  own  practice  is  to  plough  in  the  stubble,  har- 
row the  ground  lightly,  and  sow  the  turnip-seed  in 
the  quantity  of  two  pounds  to  the  acre.  This  al- 
lows something  for  insects  and  something  for  waste. 
When  the  plants  are  generally  above  ground,  give 
them  a  light  covering  of  ashes,  which,  by  quicken- 
ing the  growth  of  the  plants  and  leaching  on  their 
leaves  at  the  same  time,  better  protects  them  againsi 
the  fly  than  any  other  means  practicable  on  a  large 
scale  with  which  we  are  acquainted.*  When  Ihe 
plants  attain  the  height  of  four  inches,  we  set  the 
horse-hoe  to  work,  running  a  furrow  the  whole 
length  or  breadth  of  the  field,  and  returning  with 
another  at  the  distance  of  three  feet  from  the  for- 
mer, and  so  continuing  the  work  till  the  whole  is 
laid  off  into  beds  of  that  width.  What  we  lose  by 
this  method  is  only  the  seed  buried  by  the  horse- 
hoe  ;  what  we  gain  is  the  manure  created  by  the 
young  plants  ploughed  in  between  the  beds,  and 
the  advantage  of  being  able  to  weed  and  work  those 
left  standing  for  the  crop.  This  part  of  the  labour, 
which  immediately  follows  the  horse-hoeing,  is  ex- 
peditiously  performed  by  two  men  travelling  in  the 
furrows,  one  on  each  side  of  a  bed,  and  employing 
themselves  in  thinning  and  hand-hoeing  the  surplus 
plants.  These  operations  of  ploughing  and  weeding 
may  be  performed  a  second,  and  even  a  third  time, 
with  advantage. 

*  On  a  small  scale,  water  in  which  potatoes  have  been  boiled 
ia  believed  to  be  very  useful  in  protecting  cabbage,  turnips,  and 
other  plants  from  the  attacks  of  the  fly.  We  are  in  a  course 
of  experiments  which  will  determine  how  far  this  remedy  may 
be  relied  on. 


PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.       85 

If  we  determine  to  plough  in  the  crop  as  manure, 
we  should  do  it  while  the  ground  retains  a  tempera- 
ture favourable  to  the  decomposition  of  the  plants, 
and  before  the  frost  has  diminished  the  volume  or 
altered  their  juices.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  de- 
cide on  feeding  off  the  crop  on  the  ground,  it  is  but 
necessary  to  turn  in  our  sheep  upon  it,  under  such 
restrictions  as  will  limit  their  range  and  prevent 
waste  ;  and,  indeed,  that  nothing  may  be  lost,  hogs 
should  be  made  to  fol'ow  the  sheep.  If,  however, 
feeding  in  the  stables  be  thought  more  advisable 
(and  it  certainly  better  economizes  both  food  and 
manure),  the  turnips  should  be  drawn,  topped,  and 
stacked  ;  interposing  between  each  layer  of  them 
one  of  coarse  hay  or  other  barn-rubbish,  and  cap- 
ping the  whole  with  a  few  bundles  of  clean  long 
straw.  Though  less  nutritive  than  either  potatoes, 
carrots,  or  cabbages,  the  turnip  is  found  to  be  par- 
ticularly useful  to  stall-fed  cattle,  correcting,  by  its 
aqueous  qualities,  the  heating  effects  of  corn,  oats, 
or  rye  meal. 

Our  acquaintance  with  the  yellow  turnip  (or  ruta 
baga)  is  but  beginning.  Mr.  Cobbett's  experiments 
have,  however,  been  very  successful,  and  tend 
much  to  recommend  the  plant  in  preference  to  the 
white  or  common  species.  That,  of  the  two,  it  is 
the  more  compact,  the  heavier,  the  more  nutritious, 
the  less  apt  to  become  stringy,  and  the  more  easily 
preserved,  are  facts  not  to  be  contested.  In  both 
France  and  England  it  is  rising  in  reputation,  and 
perhaps  only  wants  time  to  get  into  general  use 
here.  To  this  article  we  will  but  add  an  extract 
from  the  work  of  M.  D'Edelcrants  (of  Sweden)  on 
the  ruta  baga. 

"  Its  root  is  milder  and  more  saccharine  than 
that  of  the  other  species,  particularly  when  boiled. 
[ts  flesh  is  harder  and  more  consistent ;  which  bet- 
cer  enables  it  to  withstand  frosts,  and  to  keep  from 
«ne  year  to  another.  Its  leaves  extend  horizon. 


86  AGRICULTURE. 

tally,  and  may  be  stripped  off  from  time  to  time,  &s 
wanted  for  forage,  without  injuring  the  product  of 
the  root ;  which,  on  good  soil,  gives  to  the  acre,  in 
Sweden,  350  quintals ;  and,  even  on  poor  soil,  a 
good  crop.  We  sow  half  a  pound  of  seed  about 
the  beginning  or  middle  of  May,  which  will  give 
plants  enough  to  fill  an  acre.  Transplanting  is 
performed  about  the  last  of  June  or  first  of  July. 
To  set  out  and  water  5  or  600  feet  in  a  day  is  the 
task  of  one  man*or  of  two  women.  One  or  two 
hoeings  augment  the  product  much.  The  harvesr 
is  made  about  the  first  of  November,  and  the  tur 
nips  are  covered  in  ditches,  or  dry  caves  or  cellars 
for  winter  use." 

IV.   Of  Barley. 

It  is  probable  that  bread  was  first  made  from  this 
grain.  The  Jewish  scriptures  speak  only  of  barley 
loaves;  the  gladiators  among  the  Greeks  were  call- 
ed barley-eaters ;  and  Columella  says  (like  our  In- 
dian corn  and  beans  in  the  Southern  states)  that 
barley  was  the  food  of  the  slaves.  Among  the  Ro- 
mans it  was  first  employed  as  a  food  for  man,  and 
afterward  for  cattle.*  The  same  qualities  which 
recommended  it  then,  have  since  diffused  it  more 
generally  than  any  other  grain  ;  it  is  found  to 
be  better  adapted  to  different  soils  and  climates ; 
less  subject  to  the  attacks  of  insects,  and  more 
easily  preserved.  In  times  of  scarcity  it  is  a  good 
substitute  for  wheat,  and  at  all  times  yields  the 
beverage  known  under  the  name  of  beer,  ale,  or 
porter.  It  is,  besides,  a  food  on  which  cattle  do 
well,  and  horses  arrive  at  their  greatest  possible 
perfection. f 

The  species  of  this  grain  most  in  request  are  two 
Kordeum  Distichum  (two-rowed  barley)  and  Hor- 

*  This  use  grew  out  of  the  belief  of  its  nutritive  and  invigor- 
ating qualities, 
t  See  Buffbn  on  the  horse  of  Arabia.    Vol.  xxii.,  p.  195. 


PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.      87 

deum  Caeleste  (naked  barley).  The  former  is  pre- 
ferred in  England,  and,  as  we  believe,  in  France. 
M.  Parmentier  ascribes  to  it  all  the  good  qualities  of 
the  other  species,  and  much  greater  productiveness.* 

Of  the  latter  species,  the  nations  of  the  north  who 
are  most  in  the  habit  of  using  barley  as  the  basis 
both  of  food  and  drink,  speak  highly. f  But  among 
us,  who  cultivate  it  only  for  the  last  purpose,  this 
species  has  less  credit,  and  is  even  considered  the 
worst  from  a  belief  that,  after  being  dried,  it  malts 
imperfectly  or  with  difficulty. 

Though  not  so  nice  in  relation  to  soil  as  either 
wheat  or  rye,  still  barley  prefers  a  loose,  warm,  and 
moist,  though  not  wet,  soil,  and  even  grows  re- 
markably well  in  sand  (where  we  have  sowed  it),  in 
succession  to  turnips,  either  ploughed  into  the 
ground  or  consumed  on  the  field. 

Other  things  being  equal,  the  spring  crops  which 
are  first  sowed  give  the  best  and  largest  products. 
The  moment,  therefore,  that  your  soil  is  sufficient- 
ly dry,  begin  ploughing,  and  at  a  depth  not  less  than 
six  inches,  since  the  roots  of  barley  enter  the 
earth  more  deeply  than  those  of  any  of  the  other 
cereal  graminae.  If  the  soil  be  well  pulverized  [as 
it  ought  to  be  after  turnips],  a  second  ploughing 
would  be  a  waste  of  time  and  money  :J%roceed, 
therefore,  to  sow  your  barley  broadcast,^  and  cov- 

*  He  states  it  to  be  double  as  much. 

t  "  Hordeum  caeleste  Norvegis  gratissimum,  quoniam  cere- 
•visiam  generosam,  praebeit."  The  naked  barley,  most  grateful 
to  the  Norwegians,  as  affording  to  them  their  generous  beer. — 
Mitterpacher,  Elemen.  rei  rust.,  page  312. 

}  The  Romans  had  two  maxims  on  the  subject  of  expense, 
which  it  would  be  wise  in  us  to  adopt :  "  Those  profits  are  to  be 
preferred  which  cost  the  least;"  and  again,  "Nothing  is  less 
profitable  than  very  high  cultivation."  "  Nihil  minus  expeclire, 
quam  agram  optime  colere  " 

§  Mr.  Young's  experiments  show  that  there  is  something  in 
the  constitution  or  habits  of  this  grain  to  which  the  drill  or  row 
husbandry  is  not  accommodated  Even  isolated  grains  weeded 
and  hoed,  did  not  do  better  than  the  ""me  number  in  broad  cast 


88  AGRICULTURE. 

er  it  with  a  short-toothed  harrow.  The  last  opera- 
tion will  be  to  sow  and  roll  in  your  clover- seed, 
destined  to  become  the  next  crop  in  succession. 

V.   Of  Clover. 

The  Trifolium  Agrarium  of  Linnaeus  is  found 
growing  spontaneously  in  many  places,  as  is  suffi- 
ciently indicated  by  the  names  given  to  it ;  as 
Dutch  clover,  Spanish  clover,  clover  of  Piedmont, 
clover  of  Normandy,  &c.,  &c.*  It  is  about  two 
centuries  since  it  first  became  an  object  of  agricul- 
tural attention  as  forage,  while  its  ameliorating  ef- 
fects on  the  soil,  produced  by  its  peculiar  system  of 
roots  and  leaves,  was  a  discovery  of  modern  date. 
It  is  now  generally  sown  with  barley,  or  other 
spring  grain  of  the  culmiferous  kind,  and  rarely  by 
itself.  The  advantages  proposed  by  this  practice 
are  three:  1st,  the  preparation  given  to  the  soil  for 
the  grain  crop,  which  is  exactly  that  best  fitted  for 
the  clover :  2d,  the  protection  given  by  the  barley 
to  the  young  clover  against  the  combined  effects  of 
heat  and  dryness  ;  and,  3d,  the  improved  condition 
in  which  it  leaves  the  soil  for  subsequent  culture 
In  this  practice,  however,  a  less  quantity  of  barley 
must  be  sown  than  usual,  because,  without  ventila- 
tion, the  clover  plants  will  perish.  To  this  condi- 
tion two  <lhers  must  be  added,  which  are  indispen- 
sable to  a  good  crop  :  1st,  that  your  seed  be  good  ; 
and,  2d,  that  it  be  regularly  and  equally  sown.  The 
tests  of  good  seed  are,  its  comparative  size  and 
weight  (the  largest  and  heaviest  being  always  the 
best),  its  plumpness,  its  yellow  or  purple  colour, 
its  glossy  skin,  and,  lastly,  its  cleanness  or  separ- 
ation from  other  seeds  and  from  dirt.- 

The  human  hand  was,  no  doubt,  the  first  ma- 
chine employed  for  sowing  seeds.  The  difficulty, 

*  A  seed  of  Holland  clover,  of  the  same  volume  with  one  of 
Normandy  clover,  weighs  one  seventh  more.  See  Gilbert  on 
Artificial  Meadows. 


PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.      89 

however,  of  scattering  them  equally  over  every  part 
of  the  field,  soon  attracted  notice,  and  engaged  me- 
chanics in  devising  something  which  should  better 
answer  that  purpose.  China  was  the  first  to  produce 
anything  at  all  commensurate  with  this  object ;  and 
it  was  not  till  the  seventeenth  century  that  this,  or 
some  similar  invention,  was  introduced  into  Europe 
by  Lucateo,  a  Spaniard,  who,  meeting  no  encour- 
agement at  home,  transmitted  his  real  or  pretended 
discovery  to  London.  Here,  as  has  been  conjec- 
tured, it  served  as  a  model  for  the  sowing-machines 
of  Tull;  and  from  1750  to  1770,  the  mania  on  this 
subject  was  at  its  height ;  but  from  that  period  to 
the  present  it  has  been  gradually  subsiding,  and  the 
hand  is  now  generally  restored  to  its  original  func- 
tions. 

The  quantity  of  seed  to  be  given  to  the  acre 
should,  in  a  great  degree,  depend  on  the  soil ;  if 
this  be  rich,  ten  or  twelve  pounds  are  sufficient; 
and  if  poor,  double  that  quantity  will  not  be  too 
much.  The  practice  of  mixing  the  seeds  of  timo- 
thy and  rye  grass,  &c.,  with  that  of  clover,  is  a  bad 
one,  because  these  grasses  neither  rise  nor  ripen  at 
the  same  time.  Another  practice,  equally  bad,  is 
that  of  sowing  clover  seed  on  winter  grain  before 
the  earth  has  acquired  a  temperature  favourable  to 
vegetation,  and  when  there  cannot  be  a  doubt  but 
that  two  thirds  of  the  seed  will  perish. 

By  the  time  your  barley  or  other  covering  crop 
is  harvested,  your  clover  will  be  sufficiently  estab- 
lished to  live  alone  ;  and,  if  not  pastured*  to  brave 
the  ensuing  winter,  and  during  the  next  summer  to 
repay  your  labour  by  two  abundant  crops  of  grass 
or  hay. 

The  period"  in  the  growth  of  clover  at  which  it 

*•  If  the  crowns  of  young  clover  roots  be  nibbled  or  otherwise 
wounded,  the  roots  die.  Sheep  and  horses  (both  of  which  bite 
closely)  should,  therefore,  be  particularly  excluded  from  clover, 
unless  intended  for  pasturage  oniy. 


90  AGRICULTURE. 

is  most  profitably  cut  and  used,  presents  a  question 
much  discussed  and  variously  answered ;  because 
depending  on  extraneous  and  local  circumstances 
(such  as  the  state  and  proximity  of  markets,  &c.)» 
which  cannot  fail  to  vary  the  results  in  the  hands 
of  different  persons,  and  even  of  the  same  person 
at  different  times  and  at  different  places.  There 
are,  however,  some  general  remarks  which  belong 
to  the  case,  and  which  ought  not  to  be  omitted  in 
even  this  brief  view  of  the  subject. 

1st.  Clover  cut  before  it  flowers  abounds  in  water, 
has  in  it  but-little  nutritive  matter,  and  is  even  apt 
to  produce  indigestion  in  the  cattle  fed  upon  it.* 

2d.  The  stems  of  clover  cut  after  seeding  are 
hard  and  woody,  and  no  longer  hold  the  leaf:  and, 

3d.  All  plants,  when  permitted  to  seed,  exhaust 
the  soil ;  and  to  this  rule  clover  is  not  an  exception. 

From  premises  furnished  by  these  facts,  we  would 
conclude  that  the  short  period  between  the  flower- 
ing and  seeding  of  clover  is  that  in  which  its  use 
would  be  most  advantageous,  whether  regarded  as 
a  forage  or  as  an  ameliorating  crop. 

When  seed  is  the  principal  object  of  culture,  we 
cannot  do  better  than  adopt  the  practice  in  Hol- 
land, where  the  first  crop  is  cut  before  it  flowers, 
and  the  second  is  reserved  for  seed. 

The  largeness  of  the  stems,  the  number  of  the 
leaves,  and  the  aqueous  quantity  of  both,  render  it 
a  difficult  business  to  make  clover  grass  into  hay ; 
and  the  difficulty  is  not  a  lijtle  increased  by  the 
brittleness  or  disposition  of  the  drying  grass  to  fall 
into  pieces  during  the  process  of  handling.  To 
meet  this  case,  two  supplementary  means  have  been 
employed,  which  enable  you  to  house  or  stack  clo- 
ver in  a  much  greener  or  less  dry  state  than  would 
otherwise  be  safe.  The  one  is  to  scatter  over  each 

*  This  effect  of  clover  (which  we  call  having)  is  prevented 
in  Alsace  by  watering  the  cattle  before  giving  them  clover,  be- 
cause a  certain  quantity  of  water  prevents  fermentation. 


PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.      91 

cartload,  while  stowing  away  for  keeping,  two  01 
three  quarts  of  sea-salt :  the  other,  to  interpose  be- 
tween two  layers  of  clover  one  of  clean  straw.  By 
the  first  method,  the  whole  mass  is  made  accept- 
able to  cattle ;  by  the  second,  the  quantum  of  nu- 
tritive forage  is  increased  ;  and  by  both  methods  the 
clover  is  effectually  prevented  from  heating* 

The  next  step  in  our  system  is  to  plough  in  the 
clover  stubble  as  a  preparation  for  the  succeeding 
crop. 

VI.   Of  Wheat. 

This  grain,  so  useful  to  man,  because  forming  so 
large  a  portion  of  his  subsistence,  is  happily  found 
to  adapt  itself  to  a  great  variety  of  soils  and  cli- 
mates. It  grows  vigorously  in  clay,  in  loam,  in 
calcareous  earth,  and  even  in  sand,  when  aided  by 
manures,  or  in  succession  to  pease,  vetches,  clo- 
ver, &c.  To  the  north  it  is  found  in  the  frozen 
regions  of  Siberia ;  and  in  the  south,  under  the 
burning  sun  of  Africa,  it  yields,  according  to  the 
declaration  of  Pliny,  more  than  one  hundred  fold.f 
In  ancient  Rome,  its  use,  as  a  food  for  man,  soon 
superseded  that  of  barley  and  rye ;  and  in  modern 
Europe  it  is  denominated  corn,  by  way  of  eminence. 

Of  this  invaluable  grain  there  are  four  species, 
distinctly  marked  and  generally  acknowledged,  viz., 
many-headed  wheat,!  Polish  wheat,  spelts,  and 

*  The  more  modern,  and,  we  think,  far  better  way  of  making 
clover  hay,  is  to  put  it  into  small  cocks  as  soon  as  it  has  become 
dried  or  wilted  in  the  swaths ;  and  to  leave  it  so  for  thirty  or 
forty  hours,  when  it  will  be  found  sufficiently  dried,  on  being 
opened  and  spread  to  the  sun  an  hour  or  two,  to  take  to  the  barn 
01  slack.  In  this  way  it  makes  the  most  and  best  fodder,  and  is 
cured  with  the  least  labour. — J.  B. 

f  "  Tritico  nihil  est  fertilius  :  utpote  cum  e  modio,  si  sit  ap- 
tum  solum,  quale  in  Byzacio  Africae  campo,  centum  quinquageni 
modii  reddentur." — XVIII.  L.  Nat.  Hist.  Pliny.  Nothing  is 
more  productive  than  wheat ;  for  a  bushel  of  this  grain,  sown  on 
a  soil  adapted  to  it,  as  that  of  the  plain  of  Byzantium,  in  Africa, 
will  yield  a  hundred  and  fifty  fold. 

t  This  is  the  Triticnm  Compositvm  of  botaniv.*,  failed  wheat 


92  'AGRICULTURE. 

common  wheat.  We  shall  speak  only  of  the  third 
and  fourth  species,  because  with  the  others  we  have 
little  practical  acquaintance ;  and, 

1st.  Of  Spelts.  This  species  and  its  principal  va- 
riety (Triticum  Monoicum)  is  much  cultivated  in 
Germany  and  Switzerland.  Deprived  of  its  husk, 
the  grain  is  smaller  than  that  of  common  wheat,  but 
yields  a  flour  of  finer  quality,  and  better  fitted  for 
the  purposes  of  pastry.*  Two  other  circumstances 
recommend  it ;  it  withstands  the  attack  of  insects, 
and  will  grow  in  poorer  soil  and  with  less  prepara- 
tory labour  than  the  fourth  species. 

2d.  Common  wheat  has  many  varieties,  some  of 
which  are  bearded,  and  others  bald ;  some  oval,  and 
others  round  or  square  ;  some  yellow  or  red,  and 
others  white  ;  some  soft,  and  others  flinty ;  acci- 
dents arising  from  culture  and  climate,  and  not,  as 
we  believe,  the  result  of  an  organization  uniformly 
and  essentially  different. 

With  regard  to  the  culture  of  this  plant,  we  shall 
confine  ourselves  to  the  following  points  :  the  prep- 
aration of  the  soil,  the  choice  and  preparation  of 
the  seed,  and  the  time  and  different  modes  of  sow- 
ing or  planting  it. 

1st.  Of  the  preparation  of  the  soil. 

Products  of  much  value  to  man  can  only  be  ob- 
tained by  corresponding  degrees  of  labour.  The 
sugar-cane,  rice,  and  wheat,  are  more  valuable  than 
oats,  buckwheat,  or  turnips,  and  require  more  la- 
bour and  expense  in  their  cultivation.  Indeed,  un- 
der the  old  system  of  fallows,  the  degree  of  both 
bestowed  upon  a  wheat  crop  was  enormous.  Two 
years  and  five  or  six  ploughings  were  sometimes 
given  to  this  preparatory  culture ;  but,  on  the  new 
plan  of  a  rotation  of  crops,  the  necessity  for  this 

of  plenty,  miraculous  wheat,  Ate.,  yielding  largely,  but,  on  manu- 
facture, giving  much  bran  and  bad  flour. 

*  The  bread  of  Frankfort,  Nuremberg,  &c.,  so  much  boast- 
ed  in  Germany,  is  made  from  spelts. 


PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.      93 

is  in  a  great  degree  obviated,  and  two  ploughings 
of  a  clover  lay  are  in  general  amply  sufficient. 
Still  this  takes  for  granted  that  these  ploughings 
are  well  performed  ;  that  no  clods  are  to  be  seen  ; 
and  that  the  field  presents  an  unbroken  surface  cf 
mellow  and  finely-pulverized  earth. 

2.  Of  the  choice  and  preparation  of  seed. 

Seed  should  be  taken  from  some  fine  crop  of  the 
preceding  year*  which  shall  have  ripened  thorough- 
ly and  been  well  preserved.  This,  after  passing 
two  or  three  times  through  the  fanning  mill,  should 
be  carefully  washed  in  clean  water,  and  again  in 
water  in  which  a  quantity  of  fresh  lime  has  been 
slackened ;  or,  if  lime  cannot  be  had,  in  which  clean 
and  recent  wood  ashes  have  been  leached.  This 
washing,  as  we  have  already  suggested,  should 
never  be  omitted :  because,  besides  detecting  the 
shrunk  or  shrivelled  grains,  and  many  seeds  of 
other  plants  which  will  float  on  the  surface  of  the 
water,  it  entirely  removes  the  dust  of  smut,  rust, 
&c.,  and  thus  prevents  their  propagation.!  Our 

*  A  great  variety  of  experiments  show  that  wheat  preserves 
its  germinating  faculties  under  circumstances  apparently  very 
unfavourable,  and  that  it  may  even  be  sown  to  advantage  when 
several  years  old,  after  a  slight  degree  of  making  in  the  sheaf 
or  the  stack,  and  after  having  been  subjected  to  a  high  degree 
of  artificial  heat.  We  mention  this  fact,  however,  not  to  invite 
to  a  selection  of  seed-grain  of  either  of  these  descriptions,  but 
to  assure  the  farmer  that,  where  better  cannot  be  had,  he  may 
employ  even  such,  without  apprehending  a  total  loss  of  his 
time  and  labour. 

t  Smut,  charbon,  and  rust  in  grain,  were,  according  to  the  old 
philosophy,  attributed  to  storms,  or  some  other  particular  state 
of  the  atmosphere ;  but  Messrs.  Tillet,  Tessier,  B.  Prevot,  and 
Decandolle,  have  shown,  that  the  two  former  of  these  diseases 
are  produced  by  an  intestinal  parasite,  of  the  uredo  or  mushroom 
family,  the  progress  of  which  is  much  promoted  by  humidity 
and  shade.  Analogy  favours  the  opinion,  that  rust  owes  its  ori- 
gin to  the  same  cause.  The  remedy  for  all  is  the  same ;  wash 
your  seed-grain  thoroughly  in  lime  water,  roll  it  in  plaster  of 
Paris,  and  sow  it  in  the  fall,  before  the  cold  and  wet  weather 
begins,  or  in  the  spring  after  it  has  ended. 


94  AGRICULTURE. 

next  step  iu  this  process  is  to  roll  the  seed  in  pul- 
verized  gypsum. 

3d.  Of  the  time  of  sowing  wheat. 

On  this  head  there  is  a  diversity  both  in  practice 
and  opinion.  Some  prefer  early,  others  late  sow- 
ing :  some  sow  in  the  full,  others  in  the  wane  of 
the  moon,  &c. 

Theory  is  certainly  on  the  side  of  early  sowing  , 
since  i~  gives  time  for  the  roots  of  the  grain  to  es- 
tablish themselves  before  winter;  and  experience 
proves  that  grain  early  sown  throws  up  more  lat- 
eral stems  than  that  which  is  sown  late. 

Of  lunar  influences  we  know  very  little,  except- 
ing that  they  extend  to  the  waves  of  the  ocean  ; 
which  probably  first  gave  rise  to  the  opinion  held 
by  M.  Toaldo  and  other  philosophers,  that  the  at- 
mosphere, which  is  only  another  and  more  fluid 
ocean,  and  which  has  much  to  do  with  the  health 
and  diseases  of  animals  and  vegetables,  is  also  sub- 
ject to  these  influences.  But  the  calculations  of 
M.  de  Place  prove  that  the  effect  of  lunar  influ- 
ence on  the  atmosphere  does  not  make  a  difference 
of  one  line  and  a  half  on  the  barometer,  and  that  it 
is  wholly  insufficient  to  account  for  those  great 
agitations  of  the  atmosphere  which  have  been  sup- 
posed most  to  affect  vegetation. 

4th.  Of  the  different  modes  of  sowing  wheat. 

These  are  two,  the  one  executed  with  the  hand, 
the  other  with  a  sowing  machine,  of  which  we  have 
already  spoken.  The  latter  has  been  advocated  on 
the  ground  of  economy,  employing  less  seed,  and 
distributing  what  it  does  employ  more  equally. 
Nor  will  it  be  denied  that,  when  wheat  is  very  high 
and  labour  very  cheap,  there  may  be  a  saving  in  the 
use  of  this  machine ;  but  in  all  other  circumstances 
the  comparison  is  in  favour  of  the  other  method,  as 
it  requires  less  time  and  fewer  labourers,  and  as  the 
waste  and  irregularity  imputed  to  it  are,  in  hand? 
practised  and  steady,  reduced  to  little  or  nothing. 


PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.      95 

A  third  method  of  propagating  wheat,  viz.,  by 
transplanting  the  suckers  at  regular  distances  from 
the  seed-bed  into  another  prepared  to  receive  them, 
has  been  practised  on  a  small  scale,  and  is  found  to 
yield  abundantly  ;  but  it  is  so  embarrai^d  with  ex- 
pense as  to  render  it  entirely  unfit  (oB^eneral  use. 

Of  the  produce  of  wheat  very  different  accounts 
have  been  given.  To  the  extraordinary  fertility  of 
Byzantium,  already  mentioned,  Pliny  adds  that  in 
Leontiun*,  in  Sicily,  its  produce  was  one  hundred 
for  one  ;  yet  Cicero,  who  had  been  quaestor  of  that 
island,  asserts  that  the  produce  of  Sicily  was  but 
ten  or  twelve  for  one.*  To  conciliate  these  high 
and  opposite  authorities,  M.  Yvart  has  supposed 
that  the  product  mentioned  by  Cicero  was  an  aver- 
age one  of  the  whole  island  ;  and  that  that  report- 
ed by  Pliny  was  the  result  of  one  or  more  trans- 
planting experiments  ;  an  opinion  rendered  probable 
from  the  fact  that  the  parent  stems  and  their  off- 
spring had  been  sent  to  Rome  by  the  procurator  of 
Augustus. 

Some  calculators  have  supposed,  and  on  data  not 
easily  refuted,  that  the  maximum  produce  of  this 
grain  over  the  whole  face  of  the  globe,  and  in  a 
series  of  any  ten  given  years,  will  not  exceed  six 
bushels  reaped  for  one  bushel  sown.f 

VII.   Of  Pease. 

The  pea  is  a  native  of  the  southern  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, and  is  found  growing  spontaneously  in  the 
western  parts  of  our  own  continent.  The  family 
is  a  large  one,  containing  several  species ;  but  of 
these  the  field-pea  alone  comes  within  the  scope  of 
our  present  purpose.  Of  this  there  are  two  varie- 
ties, denominated,  from  their  colour,  the  gray  and 

*  Orat.  contra  Verrem. 

t  The  reader  will  remember  that,  on  our  plan,  turnips  follow 
wheat  as  they  do  rye,  and  without  any  difference  in  cultivation 
See  article  3d  of  this  chapter.  To  repeat  what  we  have  sale 
there  would  be  useless. 


96  AGRICULTURE. 


the  green;  both  productive,  and,  when  separated 
from  the  skin  that  surrounds  them,  a  food  of  excel- 
lent quality  for  man,  wholesome,  nutritive,  and 
pleasant ;  and  for  cattle,  whether  in  a  dry  or  green 
state,  muchj^be  recommended.  Sheep,  cows,  and 
horses  are  Upcularly  fond  of  them ;  and  hogs  are 
more  promptly  and  economically  fattened  on  a  mix- 
ture of  pea  and  barley  meal,  in  a  state  of  acetous 
fermentation,  than  with  any  other  food. 

The  structure  of  the  roots  would  indicate  that 
pease  are  an  exhausting  crop ;  and  it  is  on  this  evi- 
dence that  in  Europe  they  are  admitted  only  in 
long,  or  six  years'  rotations ;  but  if  we  examine  the 
leaves,  in  regard  to  both  number  and  form,  we  shall 
probably  find  reason  to  modify  this  opinion,  and  to 
allow  that,  by  stifling  weeds,  by  checking  evapora- 
tion, and  eventually  by  their  own  fall,  they  ameli- 
orate the  soil,  and  render  it  more  favourable  to  sub- 
sequent crops. 

Following  turnips  in  the  rotation  we  are  now  dis- 
cussing, the  preparatory  labour  for  a  pea  crop  is  not 
great.  One,  or,  at  most,  two  ploughings,  will  be 
sufficient.  Sowing,  as  a  general  rule,  ought  to  fol- 
low ploughing  without  loss  of  time  ;  and  care  should 
be  taken  that  the  seed  be  not  laid  too  deeply.  The 
two  methods,  row  and  broadcast  sowing,  may  be 
indifferently  pursued.  By  the  former  the  seed  is 
economized,  the  product  increased,  and  the  soil  bet- 
ter tilled ;  but  not,  as  some  have  supposed,  with 
such  decided  advantages  as  to  outweigh  the  saving 
in  time  and  labour,  of  the  latter. 

The  length  and  feebleness  of  the  stems  of  pease, 
and  the  little  tendrils  they  throw  out  for  support, 
indicate  the  advantage  of  mixing  with  them  other 
plants  of  more  erect  growth,  which  may  prevent  the 
pease  from  falling  and  lodging.  For  this  purpose 
rye,  oats,  and  beans  have  been  selected,  and  with 
great  advantage. 

This  crop  is  employed  either  in  a  dry  or  in  a 


PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.       97 

green  state ;  between  which  every  farmer  will  se- 
lect according  to  circumstances.  If  the  market  for 
pease  be  brisk  and  high,  he  will  harvest,  thresh,  and 
sell  the  grain ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  pease  be  low 
and  pork  high,  the  moment  the  pods  fill  he  will  turn 
in  his  hogs  upon  them,  and  with  the  following  ad- 
vantages :  1st,  the  hogs  will  feed  and  fatten  them- 
selves, without  any  additional  interposition  of  his 
labour ;  2d,  no  part  of  their  manure  will  be  lost ;  3d, 
the  remains  of  the  crop,  refused  by  the  hogs,  will 
be  given  back  to  the  soil ;  and,  4th,  the  rooting  of 
these  animals,  which  in  other  cases  is  an  injury, 
will  in  this  be  a  benefit. 

VIII.   Of  Indian  Corn. 

This  is  a  native  of  South  America,  and  was  in- 
troduced into  Europe  in  the  16th  century  ;  where  it 
is  known  by  the  names  of  wheat  of  Turkey,  Indian 
wheat,  Spanish  wheat,  &c.*  Its  productiveness  and 
other  good  qualities  have  brought  it  into  general 
use ;  for  it  is  now  found  in  every  part  of  the  globe 
where  its  cultivation  is  not  forbidden  by  the  cold- 
ness of  the  climate.  With  proper  culture,  it  grows 
well  in  a  great  variety  of  soils ;  but  prefers  old 
and  rich  pasture-grounds,  artificial  meadows,  warm 
loams,  and  moist  vegetable  mould. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  this  grain,  denomi- 
nated from  its  colour,  number  of  rows,  and  differ- 
ent periods  of  ripening.  The  white  and  the  yellow, 
of  eight  and  twelve  rows,  are  the  varieties  general- 
ly preferred. 

Corn,  from  its  bulk,  its  prolific  character,  and  sys- 
tem of  roots,  must  necessarily  be  a  great  feeder, 
and  draw  much  of  its  supplies  from  the  earth; 
whence  arises  the  rule  that  it  ought  not  immediate- 

*  This  is  the  Zea  of  the  botanists.  In  what  does  this  differ 
from  the  zea  or  semen  of  the  ancients  ?  The  favourite  dish  of 
the  Romans  was  alica ;  and  "  Alica  fit  e  zea,  quam  semen  ap- 
pellavimus" — Alica  is  made  of  a  grain  called  semen. — Plin.  18 
L.  Nat.  Hist. 


9»  AGRICULTURE. 

ly  to  follow  or  to  precede  any  other  cereal  crop ; 
and  that  it  should  not  be  found  oftener  than  once  in 
six  years  in  the  same  field. 

The  seed  should  be  taken  from  the  finest  ears  of 
the  last  year's  crop,  and  from  those  growing  on 
stems  which  have  had  the  largest  number  of  ears. 
After  steeping  it  twenty-four  hours  in  a  strong  so- 
lution of  nitre,  it  should  be  planted.* 

There  is  some  difference  of  practice,  without  any 
great  difference  of  result,  in  the  modes  of  planting. 
Furrows  are  sometimes  made  at  the  distance  of 
three  or  four  feet  from  each  other,  and  in  one  direc- 
tion only,  and  in  these  the  seed  is  placed  fourteen 
or  sixteen  inches  apart.  At  other  times  the  field  is 
furrowed  both  ways,  and  the  seed  dropped  and  cov- 
ered at  the  points  of  intersection ;  while,  again,  two 
rows  of  beans  or  potatoes,  or  mangel  wurzel,  are 
sometimes  interposed  between  as  many  rows  of 
corn.  This  last  practice  is  most  conformable  to 
theory ;  but  the  other  methods  generally  prevail, 
and  pumpkins,  beans,  or  turnips,  form  the  under 
crops. 

Whatever  method  be  adopted,  the  time  of  planting 
is  that  at  which  the  earth  first  acquires  the  warmth 
necessary  to  vegetation,  and  which  is  sufficiently 
indicated  by  her  spontaneous  productions.  If  we 
plant  earlier,  the  seed  is  apt  to  rot ;  if  later,  the 
ripening  of  the  crop  is  hazarded. 

No  crop,  while  growing,  requires  more  attention 
than  corn,  and  none  better  repays  the  labour  be- 
stowed upon  it.  The  objects  of  this  are  two :  to 
extirpate  weeds,  and  to  keep  the  earth  loose  and 
open  to  the  influences  of  the  atmosphere.  As  soon, 
therefore,  as  weeds  begin  to  show  themselves,  the 
surface  of  the  field  must  be  well  harrowed.  Plas- 
tering is  the  next  operation,  and  may,  at  the  dis- 

*  See  in  Judge  Peters's  Notices  to  Young  Farmers,  the  effect 
of  this  solution  on  coj-n  crops. 


PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.       99 

tance  of  a  few  days,  be  repeated  with  advantage. 
The  weeds  will  now  reappear,  when  the  triangular 
harrow,  accommodated  to  the  width  of  the  inter- 
vals, must  be  employed.  This,  drawn  by  a  single 
horse,  will  do  its  work  expeditiously  and  well.  The 
plough  called  the  cultivator,  with  a  double  mould- 
board,  follows  the  harrow,*  and  is  itself  followed 
by  the  hand-hoe^  which  alone  can  perform  well  the 
last  and  great  operation  of  hilling^  the  corn.  The 
first  effect  of  this  is  to  enable  the  grain  to  form  new 
joints  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  whence  will 
issue  lateral  roots,  fitted  to  receive  an  additional 
quantity  of  aliment  necessary  or  proper  for  the 
plant-!  Care  must,  however,  be  taken  to  flatten 
these  little  mounds  of  earth,  so  as  to  make  them 
better  recipients  of  water. 

Corn  is  sometimes  cultivated  with  a  view  only  to 
the  forage  it  may  yield ;  in  which  case  it  is  gener- 
ally sown  broadcast,  at  the  rate  of  ten  bushels  to 
the  acre,  and  cut  green,  while  its  saccharine  quali- 
ties most  abound.  We  are  told  by  Bosc,  that  in  the 
volcanic  soil  of  Vicenteri,  in  Italy,  corn  managed 
in  this  way  gives  four  crops  in  the  year.  As  a  dry 
forage,  it  is  .a  great  resource  in  warm  climates, 
where  natural  meadows  are  rare,  and  artificial  near- 
ly unknown.  In  the  eastern  parts  of  Virginia,  it 
furnishes  the  principal  stock  of  horse  fodder,  and 
in  our  northern  latitudes  is  a  useful  supplement  to 
clover,  timothy,  and  red-top  hay. 

The  produce  of  corn  is  much  affected  by  weath- 

*  The  implement  now  termed  cultivator,  or  horse-hoe,  is  of 
recent  introduction  among  us.  We  have  it  of  various  patterns, 
and  it  is  coming  into  extensive  use  in  the  culture  of  hoed  or 
drilled  crops,  in  place  of  the  plough. — J.  B. 

t  Hilling  com  is  becoming  an  exploded  practice,  as  being 
rather  prejudicial  to  the  crop  than  otherwise.— J.  B. 

J  Bonnet  was  the  first  to  make  this  observation  ;  but,  if  the 
reader  wishes  to  see  a  full  illustration  of  it,  we  refer  him  to  the 
Memoir  of  M.  Varennes  de  Feuillis,  who  has  pro"?d  that  the 
crop  is  increased  1  13th  merely  by  hilling. 


100  AGRICULTURE. 

er.  If  this  be  hot  and  dry,  the  leaves,  stems,  and 
ears  are  all  diminutive  ;  if  wet,  the  leaves  and  sterns 
are  abundant,  but  the  ears  deficient  and  often  dis- 
eased ;  if  both  wet  and  cold,  no  ears  are  produced; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  be  moist  and  warm, 
more  particularly  when  the  grain  is  flowering,  the 
crop  will  be  excellent.  To  produce  this  combina- 
tion is  not  within  the  reach  of  human  industry. 
All,  therefore,  that  agricultural  foresight  can  effect, 
is  to  interpose  a  few  days  between  the  planting  of 
different  parts  of  the  crop,  so  as  to  multiply  the 
chances  of  favourable  weather. 

IX.   Of  Beans. 

Of  these  there  are  several  species,  which,  to  oc- 
cupiers of  clay  soils,  are  of  the  utmost  importance, 
because  in  them  beans  thrive  best,  while,  at  the 
same  time,  they  greatly  ameliorate  and  fit  them  for 
wheat  and  oat  crops.  The  species  most  recom- 
mended are  the  Heligoland,*  or  small  horsebean 
of  England,  and  the  white  bean.f  The  former  is 
vigorous,  hardy,  and  productive,  and  an  excellent 
food  for  cattle ;  the  latter  is  more  delicate  and  nu- 
tritive, and  much  employed  as  a  food  for  man.J 

If  beans  are  made  to  commence. a  course  of 
crops,  as  they  may  very  properly  do,  they  ought  to 
receive  the  dung  of  the  year;  which,  as  in  the  case 
of  potatoes,  should  be  spread  over  the  surface  of 
the  field,  and  ploughed  in  without  loss  of  time.  The 
moment  the  spring  frosts  are  over,  the  planting 
should  take  place,  in  rows  or-in  hills,  as  described 
in  the  last  article  for  corn;  and  throughout  the 

*  The  Heligoland,  and  other  beans  of  the  vicia  family,  are 
not  found  to  do  well  with  us.  They  grow  and  blossom,  but  do 
not  fruit  well. — J.  B. 

t  This,  as  well  as  the  China  and  other  beans  of  the  genus 
Phareola,  are  profitably  grown  on  sandy  as  well  as  on  clay  soils. 
— J.  B. 

J  Pythagoras  forbade  his  disciples  the  use  of  beans.  Whence 
we  may  conclude  that  the  Greeks  cultivated  only  the  horse 
bean,  or  bean  of  the  marshes. 


PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.     101 

whole  course  of  vegetation,  the  crop  must  be  kept 
•free  from  weeds  :  a  condition,  if  well  observed,  that 
will  secure  an  abundant  produce.* 

X.   Of  Oats. 

Oats  is  among  grains  what  the  ass  is  among  an- 
imals, very  little  respected,  but  very  extensively 
employed.  The  levis  avena  of  Ovid,  and  the  ster- 
iles  dominantur  aven<R  of  Virgil,  show  the  degrees, 
both  of  use  and  abuse,  with  which  it  was  regarded 
by  the  Romans.  In  modern  times,  a  great  literary 
authority!  describes  it  as  food  for  Scotch  men  and 
English  horses.  It  is  probably  this  its  state  of  deg- 
radation among  poets  and  philosophers,  that  deter- 
mined the  botanists  of  Europe  to  give  to  America 
the  honour  of  having  produced  it.  Mr.  Adanson 
found  it  growing  spontaneously  in  Juan  Fernandez  ; 
whence  the  philosophers  wisely  concluded  that  it 
must  be  a  native  of  Chili !  But  in  this  conclusion 
they  appear  to  have  equally  forgotten  the  laws  of 
nature  and  the  decisions  of  history ;  for  the  quota- 
tions with  which  we  began  this  article  show  that 
oats  were  cultivated  in  Italy  many  centuries  before 
the  existence  of  America  was  known  to  any  Euro- 
pean, and  few  are  ignorant  that  Chili  is  among  the 
hottest  and  driest  regions  of  the  globe,  and  that 
oats  perish  in  dry  and  hot  climates. 

Of  the  many  different  species  or  varieties  of  this 
grain,  the  black  and  the  white  are  those  which  best 
deserve  cultivation,  because  most  hardy  and  pro- 
ductive. In  the  poorest  soil,  and  with  the  smallest 
possible  labour,  they  give  something;  but  because 
they  do  not  give  much,  in  circumstances  under 
which  other  grains  would  give  nothing,  we  infer 
that  the  grain  itself  is  a  poor  one,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  a  great  exhauster  of  the  soil.  We  owe  to 
Mr.  Dranus  a  series  of  experiments  and  calcula- 

*  In  a  favourable  season,  under  good  management,  the  white 
oenn  gives  thirty  for  one. 
t  Or.  Johnson. 


102  AGRICULTURE. 

tions  which  overturn  this  opinion,  and  demonstrate 
that  "  oats,  in  rotation,  under  proper  culture  and  in . 
good  soil,  are  not  less  profitable  than  wheat  or  rye ; 
that  after  beans,  cabbages,  or  potatoes,  it  yields 
great  crops,  and  that  it  exhausts  less  than  other 
grains  which  occupy  the  soil  a  greater  length  of 
time."  As  a  protector  of  clover  or  other  grass 
seeds,  with  some  of  which  it  should  always  be 
sown,  it  is  second  only  to  barley. 

XI.   Of  Cabbages* 

These  have  been  long  known  among  us  as  a  gar- 
den vegetable,  but  are  rarely  met  with  in  field  cul- 
ture ;  a  fact  the  more  extraordinary,  as  in  England 
they  have  been  very  extensively  and  profitably  em- 
ployed in  that  way  for  more  than  half  a  century. 

The  species  most  recommended  are  the  early 
Salsbury  and  York,  the  great  Scotch,  the  Drum- 
head, the  Cavalier,  and  the  green  Savoy.  Mr.  Cob- 
bett  has  remarked,  with  much  good  sense,  that  the 
species  best  for  man  are  also  best  for  cattle ;  and 
that,  on  this  ground,  the  last  of  those  mentioned 
should  form  the  principal  part  of  our  cabbage  crop. 

The  seed  of  early  cabbages,  as  the  York  and  the 
Salsbury,  should  be  sown  in  hotbeds  about  the 
middle  of  February ;  and  that  of  winter  and  fall 
cabbages  in  the  open  field  about  the  15th  of  May. 
The  bed  selected  for  the  latter  should  be  of  good 
soil  and  well  ventilated ;  that  is,  exposed  on  all 
sides  to  the  influences  of  the  air,  and  without  arti- 
ficial shelter.  When  the  plants  rise,  they  should 
be  sprinkled  with  unleached  ashes  or  gypsum,  and, 
if  attacked  by  the  fly,  may  be  slightly  and  tempo- 
rarily covered  with  branches  of  elder.  If  the  weath- 
er be  uncommonly  dry,  a  little  watering  may  be 

*  It  is  doubtful  whether,  cabbages  will  ever  constitute  with 
us  a  field  crop  for  feeding  stock,  since  the  introduction  of  ruta 
baga,  beets,  and  carrots,  which  are  found  to  be  more  certain 
and  abundant  crops  here  than  the  cabbage,  and  are  more  easily 
preserved  for  winter  use. — J.  B. 


PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.     103 

proper ;  but  much  of  this  should  be  avoided,  tiecause 
plants,  like  animals,  may  become  topers,  and  will 
then  drink  more  than  will  be  useful  to  them. 

The  transplanting  of  early  cabbages  should  not 
be  delayed  beyond  the  12th  of  May,  nyr  that  of  the 
late  kinds  beyond  the  first  of  June.  An  acre  of 
ground  will  require  about  six  thousand  plants. 

The  preparation  of  the  soil  for  this  crop  is  exactly 
that  described  for  potatoes,  and  which,  therefore, 
need  not  be  repeated  here.  When  the  manuring, 
ploughing,  and  harrowing  are  finished,  strike  your 
furrows  from  east  to  west,  four  feet  apart ;  place 
your  plants  in  these,  twenty  inches  from  each  other, 
and  do  not  forget  so  to  press  the  earth  as  to  bring  it 
in  contact  with  every  part  of  the  roots. 

The  advantage  of  this  crop  will  be  best  seen  by 
contrasting  it  with  another,  hay  for  example.  If 
we  get  a  ton  of  timothy  per  acre,  we  think  we  do 
well,  and  are  satisfied ;  yet,  if  this  acre  had  been 
well  worked  and  manured,  and  planted  in  cabbages, 
it  would,  according  to  Mr.  Young,  have  given  you 
more  than  thirty  times  the  weight  of  the  hay.  Why 
not,  then,  prefer  the  cabbages  to  the  hay  !  Our  cat- 
tle, it  may  be  said,  will  not  like  them  so  well.  Hear 
what  the  same  author  says  on  this  head :  "  Young 
cattle  go  through  the  winter  well  on  cabbages  ;  ewes 
and  lambs  thrive  on  them;  fatting  oxen  improve 
faster  on  them  than  on  any  other  food,  and  never  fall 
off,  as  they  sometimes  do  on  turnips ;  and  milch 
cows  do  better  on  cabbages,  six  to  one,  than  on 
hay,"1  &c.  But  the  difficulty  of  preserving  them 
through  the  winter  may  be  great.  Not  half  as  great 
as  that  of  preserving  potatoes  ;  for  a  frost  that  will 
convert  these  into  dirty  water,  will  do  cabbages  no 
harm,  and  may  even  do  them  good.  Mr.  Cobbett 
preserved  them  through  a  Long  Island  winter,  and 
had  them  sound  and  fresh  in  the  month  of  May, 
and  by  a  method  equally  cheap  and  expeditious  ;  re- 
quiring only  a  plough,  a  few  leaves,  straw,  or  brush, 


104  AGRICULTURE. 

and  some  shovelfuls  of  earth  :  "  nnd  here,"  says 
he,  "  they  were  at  all  times  ready;  i'.;r  to  this  land  I 
could  have  gone  at  any  lime,  and  have  brought 
away  (if  the  quantity  had  been  large)  a  wagon-load 
in  ten  minutes." 

XII.   Of  Buckwheat. 

This  excellent  grain  is  a  native  of  Asia,  whence 
it  was  carried  to  Africa,  and  thence  by  the  Moors 
to  Europe.  In  France  it  yet  retains  the  name  of 
sarrasin. 

The  species  of  it  in  cultivation  are  two,  the  com- 
mon and  the  Tartarean  (Polygonum  Tartaricum  of 
Linnaeus.)*  This  last  species  is  highly  extolled  by 
Professor  Pallas  and  others.  It  ripens  earlier,  and 
produces  more  than  the  common  species ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  shells  more  easily,  and  has  in  it 
an  unpleasant  degree  of  bitterness. 

Cattle,  hogs,  and  poultry  are  particularly  fond  of 
this  grain,  and  no  food  fattens  them  more  promptly. 

Being  entirely  destitute  of  gluten  (the  animo  ve- 
getable part  of  wheat),  it  is  not  convertible  into 
bread,  but,  made  into  batter  and  baked  into  cakes, 
it  forms  a  very  tolerable  substitute.  Another  great 
advantage  of  buckwheat  is,  that,  with  a  small  de- 
gree of  labour,  it  thrives  well  in  the  poorest  sand  or 
gravel ;  and  in  clays  which  are  only  slightly  moist, 
it  gives  a  good  crop,  and  never  fails  to  leave  them 
loose,  friable,  and  clean.  To  the  clay-land  farmer 
this  property  is  invaluable ;  and,  to  make  the  most  of 
it,  he  should  remember  that  this  labour-saving  grain 
ought  to  have  more  of  attention  and  liberality 
than  is  generally  given  to  it ;  for  if,  under  the  hard 
treatment  and  in  the  by-places  where  it  is  now 
cultivated,  it  yields  so  much  and  works  these  im- 
portant effects  on  the  soil,  how  greatly  would  its 
usefulness  be  increased,  were  it  made  to  follow 
pease,  beans,  cabbages,  or  potatoes,  in  regular  rota- 
tion  and  on  a  large  scale. 

*  Called  also  Indian  wheat. — J.  B. 


PLANTS    AND    THEIR    CULTURE.  105 

We  have  already  spoken  of  it  as  a  manure  ;  and 
we  take  this  occasion  to  quote  from  a  late  editor  of 
the  Theatre  d' Agriculture  of  O.  Serres,  the  follow- 
ing passage :  "  We  cannot  too  much  recommend, 
after  our  old  and  constant  practice,  the  employ- 
ment of  this  precious  plant  as  a  manure.  It  is 
certainly  the  most  economical  and  convenient  the 
farmer  can  employ.  A  small  quantity  of  seed,  cost- 
ing very  little,  sows  a  large  surface  and  gives  a  great 
crop.  When  in  flower,  first  roll  and  then  plough  it 
in.  Its  shade,  while  growing,  destroys  all  weeds, 
and  itself,  when  buried,  is  soon  converted  into  ter- 
reau."* 

The  experiments  of  M.  Vauquelin  show  that,  of 
one  hundred  parts  of  buckwheat,  fifty  are  carbonate 
and  sulphate  of  potash,  and  carbonate  of  lime 


CHAPTER  X. 

OF    OTHER    PLANTS    USEFUL   IN  A  ROTATION  OF  CROPS, 
AND  ADAPTED  TO   OUR  CLIMATE. 

THESE  may  be  brought  under  three  classes  ;  those 
which  yield  a  colouring  matter,  those  which  yield 
oil,  and  those  whose  bark  is  convertible  into  cloth- 
ing. Of  the  first  are  madder,  saffron,  and  woad  ;  of 
the  second,  poppy,  colet,  and  palma  Christi ;  and  of 
the  third,  flax  and  hemp. 

I.   Of  Madder. 

Madder  is  the  erylhros  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  ru- 
bia  of  the  Latins,  so  called  from  its  imparting  a  red 
colour  to  wool  and  leather.  It  is  cultivated  in  the 
Levant,  in  France,  in  Flanders,  and  in  England ;  but 
nowhere  more  extensively  or  profitably  than  in 

*  Vegetable  mould. 


106  AGRICULTURE. 

Holland.  The  province  of  Zealand  is  principally 
occupied  with  it,  and  the  little  island  of  Schowen 
alone  gives  annually  one  thousand  tuns  of  the  root. 

The  species  generally  cultivated  are  two,  the 
Azara  and  Izari ;  names  by  which  they  are  called 
in  the  Levant,  whence  the  seed  is  generally  import- 
ed to  Europe,  and  preferred  to  that  raised  in  more 
northern  latitudes. 

The  soil  most  proper  for  this  plant  is  a  rich  loam, 
and  the  manures  fittest  for  it  the  sweepings  of  streets 
and  gutters,  and  mud  of  ponds.*  It  is  remarked  in 
England  that  it  succeeds  better  after  a  grain  than 
after  a  grass  crop.  The  preparatory  labour  should 
be  performed  in  the  fall,  leaving  a  single  ploughing 
only  for  the  spring,  which,  like  those  that  preceded 
it,  should  be  as  deep  as  possible.  The  planting 
should  follow  without  delay.  In  the  Levant  they 
form  beds,  alternately,  of  unequal  elevation ;  one 
high,  the  other  low ;  on  the  latter  the  madder  is 
planted,!  a°d  in  the  autumn  of  the  second  year  the 
surface  of  the  higher  bed  is  scattered  over  that 
which  is  lower  ;  and  by  a  similar  process  the  next 
year  the  lower  bed  is  raised  six  inches  higher  than 
the  other.  By  this  management  the  earth  retains 
sufficient  humidity  for  the  growing  plants. 

In  transplanting  madder,  care  must  be  taken  to 
preserve  the  buttons  which  attach  themselves  to 
the  roots,  and  that  the  roots  themselves  be  ten 
inches  apart  in  the  rows,  and  their  crowns  not  more 
than  two  inches  below  the  surface. 

The  greatest  duration  of  the  plant  is  six  years, 
but  three  is  the  permitted  term;  as,  after  that  age, 
the  roots  lose  in  colour  and  soundness  what  they 

*  Young's  works. 

t  Madder  requires  more  moisture  in  its  first  stage  than  is 
ordinarily  furnished  by  rains  and  dews.  Thence  arose  the  meth- 
od of  raising  the  plants  in  a  seed-bed,  where  they  might  be 
watered  at  will,  and  afterward  transferred  to  the  place  where 
they  were  intended  to  grow. 


PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.     107 

gain  in  bulk.  At  three  years  a  single  root  has  been 
found  to  weigh  between  thirty  and  fotty  pounds ; 
and,  the  larger  the  root,  the  less  does  it  lose,  in  pro- 
portion, by  depreciation.* 

When  the  roots  are  taken  up,  they  are  suspended 
under  cover  for  ten  or  twelve  days  to  dry.  During 
this  time  much  of  the  water  of  vegetation  is  evapo- 
rated ;  the  plant  becomes  soft,  and  is  then  subjected 
to  the  heat  of  an  oven  from  which  bread  has  been 
taken.  After  a  second  baking  it  comes  out  dry  and 
brittle  ;  and  to  disengage  from  it  the  earth,  the  small 
fibres,  and  the  outer  skin  of  the  root,  it  is  lightly 
threshed  with  a  flail,  after  which  it  is  fit  for  grinding. 

Of  Wood. 

This  plant,  till  1756,  was  much  employed,  and  fur- 
nished the  finest  blue  colour;  and,  in  the  opinion  of 
some  dyers,  is  even  now  very  profitably  united  with 
indigo,  giving  to  the  colour  imparted  by  it  more  in- 
tensity as  well  as  duration.  The  maturity  of  the 
leaves,  which  are  the  only  useful  part  of  the  plant,  is 
announced  by  their  drooping,  and  by  the  yellow  col- 
our which  they  take.  At  this'signal  they  must  be 
stripped  from  their  stems,  housed,  and  left  in  mass 
till,  freed  from  the  water  of  vegetation,  they  begin 
to  macerate  by  their  own  weight.  They  are  then 
to  be  washed  and  reduced  to  a  paste  ;  after  which  a 
fermentation  takes  place,  and  the  fecula  shows  it- 
self and  forms  a  black  crust,  which  is  not  to  be  bro- 
ken, because  necessary  to  prevent  evaporation. 
When  the  fermentation  has  subsided  (which  may 
be  known  by  the  diminished  stench),  the  mass  is 
pounded  and  formed  into  balls  for  use.  The  soil 
and  preparation  indicated  in  the  last  article  for  mad- 
der are  most  proper  for  woad. 

Of  Saffron. 

This  plant  is  culivated  only  for  the  stigmata  of 
the  flowers,  which  give  a  yellow  colour  and  are 

*  In  large  roots  this  loss  is  fl-"ths,  in  small  ones  7-Sths.    - 


108  AGRICULTURE. 

employed  in  dyeing  and  in  gauche  painting.  It  suc- 
ceeds best  in  a  rich,  friable,  black  earth,  or  in  one 
of  a  dark  red  or  chocolate  colour.  Some  writers 
have  remarked  that  the  roots,  which  are  bulbous, 
grow  to  the  greatest  size  in  the  former  of  these 
soils,  and  that  the  flowers  attain  the  highest  perfec- 
tion in  the  latter.  The  manure  best  adapted  to  it  is 
old  and  thorougly-rotted  dung. 

After  being  well  ploughed,  rolled,  and  harrowed, 
the  ground  intended  for  this  crop  is  trenched,  and 
the  roots  placed  in  the  trenches  nine  or  ten  inches 
apart.  So  soon  as  the  flowers  appear,  which  al- 
ways precede  the  leaves,  the  soil  about  them  must 
be  lightly  hoed.  When  fully  blown,  and  while  wet 
with  dew,  they  are  taken  off  carefully  with  the  hand 
and  spread  upon  boards  to  dry.  The  stigmata  are 
then  separated  from  the  styles,  after  which  they  are 
ready  for  market. 

Of  the  Poppy. 

The  poppy  is  among  the  most  important  of  the 
oil-giving  plants,  as  well  for  the  value  as  for  the 
abundance  of  its  produce.  The  oil  is  altogether 
found  in  the  seeds,  and  does  not  partake  of  any  som- 
niferous or  other  deleterious  quality,  as  some  per- 
sons have  supposed.  It  is  often  mixed  with  olive 
oil,  and,  so  long  as  it  is  fresh,  it  is  equally  pleasant 
and  wholesome.  It  is  much  used  in  France,  Hoi- 
land,  and  Germany,  in  salads.  Its  only  fault  is, 
that,  if  long  kept,  it  becomes  thick  and  viscous.  The 
plant  is  annual,  and  requires  a  good  and  well-labour- 
ed soil.  The  seeds  should  be  taken  from  the  ripest 
and  largest  capsules  of  the  preceding  year ;  should 
be  sown  early  and  thin,  and  in  broadcast;  because, 
if  thickly  sown,  the  plants  rot,  and,  if  sown  late, 
they  are  injured  by  a  too  rapid  vegetation.  The 
fall  of  the  leaf,  the  dying  of  the  stalk,  and  the  brown 
colour  of  the  capsules,  indicate  the  time  for  harvest- 
ing the  crop.  These  last  are  carefully  gathered 
atul  dried,  and  the  seed  separated  from  them. 


PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE.     109 

Of  Cole. 

Cole  or  rape  is  a  variety  of  the  cabbage,  the  seed 
of  which  yields  an  oil  very  useful  to  the  arts,  and 
renders  the  plant  of  great  importance  in  agriculture. 
Its  general  management  does  not  differ  from  that  of 
any  other  variety  of  the  kind.  When  the  seed  is 
ripe,  it  must  be  carefully  gathered  and  separated 
from  its  chaff.  The  plantations  of  cole  in  Flanders, 
and  particularly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lisle,  Has- 
brook,  and  Douay,  and  on  a  part  of  the  Escant,  are 
immense.  They  generally  follow  a  crop  of  well- 
dunged,  well-laboured  potatoes,  and  are  followed  by 
one  of  wheat. 

Palma  Christi,  or  the  castor-oil  plant,  and  the  rici- 
nus  of  botanists,  has  been  cultivated  in  this  state; 
but  whether  profitably  or  not  we  do  not  know.  Its 
seed  gives  an  oil  fit  for  lamps,  but  principally  em- 
ployed as  a  medicine.  The  cultivation  of  this  plant 
has  been  tried  in  the  southern  parts  of  France,  but 
not  on  a  large  scale,  as  it  was  found  to  require  much 
ground  and  to  give  few  seeds,  which  ripen  only  in 
succession.  In  Carolina  the  stem  attains  the  height 
of  ten  or  twelve  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  four  or  five 
inches.  As  an  ornamental  shrub,  the  palma  Christi 
is  much  to  be  recommended. 

Of  the  Sunflower. 

This  plant  is  a  native  of  Peru,  and  is  cultivated 
in  Europe  principally  for  the  seeds,  which  give  a 
large  proportion  of  oil,  of  much  use  for  domestic 
purposes.  It  requires  a  good  soil,  well  manured, 
and  thoroughly  worked  and  cleansed.  The  seeds 
should  be  sown  one  foot  apart,  and  in  rows  two  feet 
asunder.  In  France  the  stems  are  employed  for 
fuel  and  peasticks,  and  the  leaves  for  fodder.* 

Of  Flax. 

Flax  is  of  Asiatic  origin,  and,  from  its  hardiness 
and  usefulness,  is  generally  diffused  over  the  globe. 

*  See  Crete  de  Paleuil  on  the  Sunflower. 


110  AGRICULTURE. 

No  plant  undergoes  a  greater  change  in  the  hands 
of  labour,  and  few,  if  any,  better  repays  the  labour 
bestowed  upon  it.*  It  is  cultivated  for  two  differ- 
ent objects  :  for  the  fibre  which  surrounds  the  stem, 
and  which  is  convertible  into  cloth,  and  for  the 
seeds,  which  yield  an  oil  very  important  to  the  arts. 
These  different  purposes  have  been  supposed  to  be 
best  promoted  by  different  kinds  of  seed  and  differ- 
ent kinds  of  culture.  In  England  it  is  believed  that 
the  seed  of  this  country  gives  a  flax  of  greater 
length  and  of  finer  fibre ;  and  that  the  seed  of  Me- 
mel  or  Rigaf  produces  a  coarser  plant  and  a  greater 
quantity  of  seed.  We  doubt,  however,  the  correct- 
ness of  this  distinction,  and  think  ourselves  support- 
ed by  experience,  as  well  as  theory,  in  placing  the 
difference  less  to  the  account  of  any  peculiar  qual- 
ity of  the  seed,  than  to  the  greater  or  smaller  quan- 
tity of  it  sown ;  for  we  have  invariably  observed 
that,  if  flaxseed,  wherever  grown,  be  sown  thinly, 
the  stem  is  shorter,  the  fibre  coarser,  and  the  seed 
more  abundant,  and  vice  versa.  This  difference 
will  necessarily  be  increased  by  different  modes  of 
culture.  The  row  husbandly,  admitting  of  more 
ventilation,  will  hasten  more  the  maturity  of  the 
plant,  and  increase  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
seed ;  whereas  the  broadcast  method  will,  on  the 
other  hand,  retard  the  maturity  of  the  plant,  length- 
en the  stem  and  the  fibre  that  covers  it,  and,  in  the 
same  proportion,  diminish  the  quantity  of  seed. 

Flax  may  be  made  to  follow  potatoes  very  advan- 
tageously ;  and  we  have  seen  the  practice  of  sowing 
it  with  a  crop  of  that  kind  earnestly  recommend- 
ed.J 

The  time  for  harvesting  flax  depends  on  the  cou- 

*  How  wonderful  the  difference  between  the  raw  material 
and  Brussels  lace ! 

t  The  flaxseed  of  Riga  is  broad  and  flat,  and  of  a  darker 
Colour  than  that  of  this  country. 

t  See2d  vol.  Varla's  Husbandry. 


PLANTS    AND   THEIR    CULTURE.  Ill 

siderations  suggested  above.  If  seed  be.  the  princi- 
pal end  of  the  crop,  your  harvesting  ought  not  to 
begin  till  this  is  completely  ripe ;  whereas,  if  the 
fibre  be  your  main  object,  pull  the  flax  two  or  three 
weeks  earlier.  Flax  thus  prematurely  pulled  is 
called  white  flax,  and  makes  the  finest  thread.  The 
exhausting  quality  of  this  plant  is  generally  admit- 
ted, and  has  been  long  known.  Pliny  says  of  it, 
that  it  burns  and  degrades  the  soil  in  return  for  the 
nourishment  it  receives  from  it.* 

Of  Hemp. 

The  cultivation  of  this  plant  need  not  be  attempt- 
ed on  soils  which  are  not  naturally  or  artificially 
very  rich.  They  who  possess  the  former  will  of- 
ten find  the  culture  of  hemp  useful  in  reducing  the 
staple  of  the  soil  to  that  medium  quality  which  is 
best  fitted  for  the  production  of  grain.  In  some 
parts  of  our  own  country  hemp  has  been  cultivated 
many  years  in  succession,  before  this  effect  was 
produced ;  and  in  Italy,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Bologna,  after  centuries  of  cultivation,  the  rotation 
continues  to  be  wheat  and  hemp  alternately,  and 
without  fallows.  So  also  in  the  environs  of  Ter- 
monde,  near  Brussels,  the  usual  rotation  is  hemp, 
flax,  and  wheat.\  It  is,  perhaps,  to  tffose  favoured 
soils  we  ought  to  look  for  the  best  mode  of  culti- 
vating this  very  useful  and  profitable  plant.  "  Du- 
ring the  first  year,"  says  M.  Simmonde,  in  his  Pic- 
ture of  Tuscan  Agriculture,  "  the  field  intended  for 
hemp  is  laid  flat  by  the  small  Tuscan  plough  in  the 
months  of  August  and  September.  This  is  follow- 
ed by  the  great  plough,  which  reinstates  the  four- 
feet  furrows,  and  throws  up  the  intermediate  earth 
into  ridges.  The  manure  is  applied  to  these  in  the 
spring;  after  which  the  hemp-seed  is  sown  and 

*  "  Ut  sentiamus,  nolente  id  ferre  natura,  urit  agrum  deteri 
oremque  etiarn  terrain  facit."  Nat.  Hist.,  1.  xix. 

t  Francis  de  Neauchateau's  State  of  Husbandry  in  the  sena 
toriat  of  Brussels. 


112  AGRICULTURE. 


arrowed.  This  crop,  like  that  of  flax 
be  Deeded  when  about  four  inches  high." 

Uf  Swallow-wort  or  Milkweed. 

This  is  the  asclepias  Syriaca  of  the  botanists,  and 
not  improperly  called  the  cotton  of  northern  lati- 
tudes. Its  cortical  fibre  yields  a  fine,  soft,  and  white 
thread,  and  the  pods  a  silky  material,  usefully  em- 
ployed in  waddings  and  in  hat-making,  &c.  "  There 
are  few  plants,"  says  Sonnini,  "  the  culture  of  which 
unites  more  advantages,  or  which  is  more  worthy 
the  attention  of  farmers.  In  Silesia  it  has  made 
considerable  progress  ;  and  experience  shows  that 
in  a  middling,  or  even  a  bad  soil,  it  gives  a  product 
eight  times  more  valuable  than  the  finest  crop  of 
flax  or  hay.  It  requires  a  strong  and  moist  soil, 
well  laboured  and  manured,  and  may  be  propagated 
by  seeds,  by  suckers,  or  by  roots.  The  row  hus- 
bandry is  the  most  proper  for  it,  and  in  the  course 
of  three  years  the  intervals  between  the  furrows 
will  be  completely  filled  up  by  new  and  multiplied 
shoots. 

Of  the  plant  called  New- Zealand  Flax. 

This  is  iheformion  tenax  of  botanists  ;  the  leaves 
of  which,  by  maceration  in  water,  yield  a  fibre  re- 
markable for  beauty  and  strength.  We  owe  to  M. 
Labillardiere  a  series  of  experiments,  the. result  of 
which  shows  that  the  strength  of  flax  being  11,  that 
of  hemp  is  16  1-3,  and  that  of  formion  23  5-11.  In 
the  hot  countries,  of  which  this  plant  is  a  native,  it 
is  found  on  the  seashore,  growing  sometimes  in 
wet  or  marshy  soils,  and  sometimes  in  arid  sands. 
M.  Thouin  has  succeeded  in  naturalizing  it  in  the 
north  of  France,  which  gives  reason  to  believe  that 
it  may  be  made  to  succeed  in  this  climate 


MEADOWS.  113 


CHAPTER  xi. 


OF    MEADOWS. 


Hofticufiure, 


THESE  are  either  natural  or  artificial^  the  former 
containing  only  plants  of  spontaneous  growth,  the  ' 
latter  those  selected,  sown,  and  cultivated  by  man. 
The  better  to  keep  this  distinction  in  view.'we  shall 
speak  of  them  separately  ;  and, 

I.   Of  Natural  Meadows. 

These  have  been  classed  by  botanists  according 
to  their  elevation ;  and  have  thence  been  denomina- 
ted high,  middling,  and  low.  But  as  this  principle 
fails  altogether  to  indicate  their  agricultural  charac- 
ter and  properties,*  a  better  one  has  been  found  in 
their  relative  moisture ;  whence  they  are  denom- 
inated dry,  or  moist,  or  wet.  The  products  of  these 
have  been  carefully  and  skilfully  analyzed  in  Ger- 
many, in  Italy,  in  England,  and  in  France  ;f  and  the 
result  shows  that  wet  meadows  contain  a  smaller 
number  of  the  different  species  of  plants,  but  a 
greater  number  of  those  which  are  either  useless 
or  injurious;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  moist 
meadows  contain  a  greater  number  of  the- former, 
and  a  smaller  number  of  the  latter.  The  following 
simple  table  exhibits,  at  a  glance,  the  present  stale 
of  knowledge  on  this  important  part  of  our  subject : 
Whole  number  of  Plants 

in  wet  meadows,    30 ;  useful  4,  useless  or  bad  26. 
Do.  in  dry  meadows,     38 ;    do.      8,  do.  30. 

Do.  in  moist  meadows,  42 ;    do.    17,          -  do.  25. 

*  We  often  find  bogs  on  the  tops  of  mountains,  and  arid  sands 
on  the  banks  of  rivers. 

t  See  "  Observations  mat.e  by  the  Agricultural  Society  of 
Great  Britain,"  and  "  Memciires  sur  I'Agriculture  du  Bouton- 
nais,"  &c.,  &c.,  per  M.  Dumont  de  Coursit. 


114       .  AGRICULTURE. 

^he  agricultural  labours  suggested  by  these  facts 
are  of  two  kinds  :  the  eradicating  of  useless  or  per- 
nicions  plants,  and  the  continuance  and  multiplica- 
tion of  those  which  are  good.  The  first  of  these 
objects  is  promoted  by  mowing  the  meadows  be- 
fore the  seeds  of  noxious  plants  ripen,  by  pasturing 
them  once  in  three  years  with  sheep,  horses,  and 
cattle  in  succession ;  by  harrowing  them  in  the 
spring  and  fall ;  by  weeding  and  hoeing  them  ;  and, 
lastly,  by  sufficiently  draining  those  that  are  wet. 

Many  pernicious  plants  are  annuals,  and  are  kill- 
ed by  the  first  of  these  operations.  A  similar  ef- 
fect is  produced  by  the  second  ;  the  harrow,  or  scar- 
ificator,  will  best  destroy  mosses  or  other  weeds 
whose  roots  are  fibrous  and  superficial ;  the  hand- 
hoe  will  extirpate  such  tap-rooted  plants  as  resist 
the  harrow  and  are  refused  by  cattle  ;  and  draining 
will  expel  all  worthless  aquatics. 

Of  these  remedies,  the  last  may  require  some  ex- 
planation. Meadows  are  wet  from  different  caus- 
es; from  obstructions,  accidental  or  permanent,  to 
the  course  of  rivers  ;  from  occasional  inundations  ; 
from  high  and  uncommon  tides";  from  neighbouring 
springs,  issuing  sometimes  above  and  sometimes 
below  the  level  of  the  grounds  you  wish  to  drain  ; 
and  frequently  from  others  rising  up  within  the 
meadows  themselves.  In  the  first  case,  the  reme- 
dy is  obvious,  and  consists  altogether  in  removing 
the  obstructions ;  in  the  second  and  third,  embank- 
ments, as  in  the  Mississippi  and  Delaware,  will  ex- 
clude the  flood  ;  and  in  the  fourth  and  fifth,  the  cure 
lies  in  creating  a  surface  of  lower  level  than  that 
of  the  meadows  to  be  drained,  or  in  raising  the 
water-  to  a  level  above  that  of  the  meadows,  and 
carrying  it  off  by  raceways  or  canals.  The  former 
of  these  methods  is  to  be  executed  by  ditching,  or 
by  digging  through  the  subsoil  into  sand  or  grave], 
whence  the  water  will  find  a  subterranean  passage. 
The  latter  is  effected  by  enclosing  the  springs  with- 


MEADOWS.  115 

in  walls,  and  permitting  them  to  rise  to  the  level 
of  their  own  source.  It  is  evident,  however,  that 
if  these  be  not  higher  than  that  of  the  meadow,  the 
experiment  will  fail.* 

The  second  object,  viz.,  the  multiplication  and 
continuance  of  good  plants,  will  be  ensured  by  scat- 
tering in  the  fall  or  spring,  or  both,  after  the  har- 
row or  scarificator,  the  seeds  of  useful  grasses,! 
particularly  upon  places  rendered  raw  or  bare  by 
the  harrow  or  the  hoe ;  by  covering  the  meadows 
in  the  fall  with  straw,  dung,  lime,  or  marl ;  and  in 
the  spring,  with  plaster  of  Paris  or  ashes ;  by  fold- 
ing or  parking  sheep  or  horned  cattle  during  the 
summer,  and  while  the  ground  is  hard,  on  places  re- 
quiring manure  ;  by  foddering  on  such  places  during 
the  winter ;  and,  lastly,  by  irrigation.  This  last  and 
most  efficient  method  of  bettering  the  condition  of 
meadows  is  sometimes  characterized  by  the  dura- 
tion of  its  means,  and  sometimes  by  the  mode  of 
applying  them.  In  the  first  case,  it  is  called  tem- 
porary or  permanent,  as  the  stream  it  employs  may 
be  the  one  or  the  other.  In  the  second  case,  it  is 
denominated  filtration  or  submersion,  according  to 
the  effect  produced.  If,  for  instance,  the  surface 
be  only  wetted  by  running  water,  it  is  called  filtra- 
tion ;  but  if  entirely  covered  with  water,  in  a  state 
of  rest,  it  is  called  submersion.  These  different 
modes  have  some  principles  common  to  both,  and 
some  peculiar  to  each.  The  common  principles 
are, 

1st.  Such  command  of  water  as  will  cover  the 
largest  surface  with  the  least  labour  and  expense. 

3d.  Muddy  water  (the  effect  of  loosened  soil  and 
heavy  rains)  is  most  favourable  to  vegetation,  be- 

*  See  Anderson's  Essays  on  Agriculture,  vol.  i.,  p.  119,  &c. 

t  In  selecting  these  grasses,  care  should  be  taken  to  employ 
those  most  resembling  the  spontaneous  growth  of  the  field,  or, 
in  other *vords,  those  which  flower  and  seed  at  the  same  time 
with  this  spontaneous  growth. 


116  AGRICULTURE. 

cause,  besides  giving  the  necessary  moisture,  it  fur- 
nishes a  considerable  portion  of  alluvial  matter. 

3d.  Water  charged  with  sand  or  gravel,  or  con- 
taining iron  or  vitriol,  or  of  a  temperature  very  hot 
or  very  cold,  is  unfavourable  to  vegetation,  and 
ought  not  to  be  employed,  until,  by  standing  in  res- 
ervoirs, it  deposites  these  injurious  matters  in  the 
one  case,  and  in  the  other  acquires  the  temperature 
of  the  atmosphere. 

4th.  Clay  and  calcareous  soils  require  less  water- 
ing than  others. 

5th.  Irrigation  is  of  less  importance  in  northern 
than  in  southern  latitudes ;  and, 

6th.  In  cold  climates,  or  in  situations  of  much 
elevation,  irrigation  is  most  usefully  employed  in 
the  spring  and  autumn ;  and  in  hot  climates  and 
sandy  soils  in  the  summer. 

The  principles  peculiar  to  the  two  modes  may 
be  collected  from  the  following  brief  detail  of  the 
labours  necessary  to  each.  In  irrigating  by  sub- 
mersion, the  first  and  great  labour  is  to  make  a  dam 
of  such  strength  as  shall  resist  the  volume  of  water 
by  which  it  may  be  pressed ;  of  such  height  as  will 
raise  the  water  above  the  level  of  the  gVound  you 
wish  to  overflow ;  and  of  such  structure  as  will  en- 
able you  to  discharge  the  water  it  collects  promptly 
and  e'ntirely.  The  signal  for  doing  this  is  the  rising 
of  air-bubbles  from  the  bottom  of  the  pond,  which 
never  takes  place  until  a  decomposition  of  the 
plants  below  begins.  In  winter,  this  tendency  to 
decomposition  is  corrected  by  cold;  and  the  sub- 
mersion may,  of  course,  be  continued  for  weeks 
and  months,  and  the  water  permitted  to  freeze,  not 
only  without  injury,  but  with  great  benefit  to  the 
plants,  particularly  if  they  have  been  closely  pas- 
tured in  the  fall. 

Filtration  is  a  process  requiring,  in  general,  more 
labour  and  science  than  the  other;  because,  besides 
a  dam  to  raise  a  sufficient  head  of  water,  yo'b  must 


MEADOWS.  117 

have  your  canal  of  derivation,  your  reservoir,  your 
cuts  or  ditches,  and,  lastly,  your  fosse  or  pit  of  dis- 
charge, which,  to  be  useful,  must  be  well  construct- 
ed and  judiciously  placed.  The  cana?  and  reservoir 
will  necessarily  occupy  the  highest  ground,  and  he 
proportioned  to  the  quantity  of  water  to  be  conduct- 
ed and  retained  ;  the  cuts  or  ditches,  supplied  from 
the  reservoir,  will  be  parallel  to  each  other,  of  near- 
ly equal  descent,  but  of  diameters  diminishing  in 
proportion  to  their  length,  so  as  to  give  to  the  water 
the  same  swiftness  it  had  when  its  volume  was 
greatest.  Stops  or  gates  must  be  made  in  the  cuts 
or  ditches  in  such  number  as  may  be  necessary  so 
to  pond  the  water  as  to  make  it  overflow  the  lower 
sides  of  the  ditches,  and  at  such  points  as  will,  from 
the  shape  of  the  ground,  diffuse  it  most  generally.  In 
this  way,  small  streams,  occasional  showers,  and 
dissolving  snows  may  be  turned  to  great  account, 
and  with  this  additional  advantage,  that  they  require 
no  reservoirs,  and  little,  if  any,  draining,  and  only 
cuts  or  ditches  formed  with  a  plough  or  a  hoe. 

A  third  kind,  compounded  of  the  two  others,  is 
sometimes  seen  in  Europe,  where  the  water,  after 
being  employed  in  irrigating  the  sides  of  hills,  is 
brought  upon  flats  for  the  purpose  of  inundation,  or, 
more  generally,  for  that  of  forming  reservoirs,  from 
which  it  may  again  be  raised  by  machinery,  such 
as  the  noria  of  the  Moors,  or  the  hydraulic  ram  of 
Montgolfier,  &c.* 

II.   Of  Artificial  Meadows. 

We  have  seen  that  natural  meadows  abound  in 
plants  either  useless  or  pernicious;  and  that  it  is 
among  the  principal  labours  of  agriculture  to  eradi- 

*  Whoever  may  have  occasion  to  study  the  two  subjects 
(draining  and  irrigation),  either  separately  or  in  connexion,  can- 
not do  better  than  consult  the  Hydraulic  Architecture  of  Belli- 
dor,  the  Hydraulics  of  Dubuat,  M.  de  Ourche's  General  Treatise 
on  Meadows,  Defue  on  the  Embankments  of  Holland,  and  Rich 
ardson's  Agriculture. 


118  AGRICULTURE. 

cale  these,  and  to  substitute  for  them  others  of 
greater  product  or  better  quality.  It  was  probably 
this  process  which  first  suggested  the  idea  of  arti- 
ficial meadows,  or  those  composed  only  of  plants  of 
our  own  choosing,  and  alternating  with  grain  or  root 
crops.  And  it  cannot  be  doubted  that,  if  the  grasses 
selected  be  good  in  themselves,  adapted  to  the  soil, 
and  carefully  culivated,  we  thus  arrive  at  the  high- 
est possible  degree  of  perfection  of  which  this 
branch  of  the  art  is  susceptible ;  because,  besides 
having  only  wholesome  and  nutritive  forage,  we  double 
its  quantity,  and,  at  the  same  time,  put  the  soil  in  a 
state  to  give  us  a  series  of  good  subsequent  crops. 

France  claims  the  credit  of  having  been  the  first 
to  discover  the  value,  and  to  introduce  the  practice 
of  this  new  system  ;  and  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  col- 
lect some  of  the  reports  of  her  writers  on  the  agri- 
cultural changes  wrought  by  it.  "  If,"  says  Yvart, 
"  meadows  be  the  nerve  of  good  husbandry,  it  is, 
above  all,  to  artificial  meadows  we  must  apply  this 
great  truth.  The  state  of  those  cantons  which  have 
adopted  the  new  system  is  now  as  brilliant  as  it 
was  before  wretched  and  miserable.  Alsace  has 
put  on  a  new  face  since  the  introduction  of  clover, 
and  wheat  crops  have  been  increased  more  than 
one  third.  The  village  of  Sebaeh,  under  the  old 
system,  bought  annually  180,000  pounds  of  forage, 
and  now  sells  150,000.  The  canton  of  Virien,  which 
gave  formerly  only  rye  and  buckwheat  (and  poor 
crops  of  these),  now  gives  abundant  crops  of  fine 
wheat.  This  is  altogether  owing  to  clover  and  gyp- 
sum. The  same  remark  applies  to  the  department 
of  Doubs.  In  the  department  of  the  Seine  and  Ouse, 
the  four  year  rotation  is  adopted,  of  which  clover 
is  the  basis,  and  more  than  doubles  the  produce  for 
exportation.  In  Varenne,  the  soil  of  which  is  a 
poor  sand,  the  same  effect  is  produced  by  sainfoin 
instead  of  clover.  In  a  canton  of  the  department 
of  Loiret,  M.  Sageret  has  doubled  his  income  by 


MEADOWS.  119 

the  introduction  ancPculture  of  lucerne."  It  would 
be  mere  waste  of  time  to  multiply  quotations  on 
this  head.  Few  men  of  our  own  country  who  have 
had  their  eyes  open  for  some  years  past,  but  must 
have  seen  the  wonderful  effects  produced  by  plaster- 
ed clover ;  and  if  there  be  any  who  resist  these  evi- 
dences, or  are  insensible  to  them,  they  must  be  far 
beyond  the  reach  of  instruction.  We  hasten,  there- 
fore, to  another  and  important  part  of  our  subject, 
the  choice  of  grasses  for  artificial  meadows.  Those 
most  recommended  by  the  experience  of  all  coun- 
tries are  lucerne,  sainfoin,  and  clover  of  the  legu- 
minous family ;  and  timothy,  oat-grass,  ray-grass, 
and  meadow  fox-tail  of  the  gramineal.*  We  shall 
say  a  few  words  of  each,  and,  1st.  of  Lucerne. — This 
plant  is  a  native  of  Media,  whence  its  Latin  name 
Medica.  It  was  well  known  and  highly  esteemed 
by  the  ancients,  uniting  in  itself  many  valuable  quali- 
ties, as  early  fitness  for  use,  great  productiveness 
and  duration,!  and  juices  the  most  nutritious  and 
acceptable  to  cattle.  In  the  south  of  Europe  it  still 
maintains  this  high  reputation,  and  in  our  southern 
climates  would  entirely  deserve  it ;  but  of  its  suc- 
cess here  we  have  doubts,  founded  on  the  fact  that 
all  attempts  made  to  introduce  it,  and  coming  with- 
in our  own  observation,  have  failed.  Two  condi- 
tions are,  however,  indispensable  to  its  prosperity 
in  any  climate,  and  these  are  a  rich  soil  and  careful 
cultivation.  In  wet,  or  stony,  or  stiff  ground,  it  does 
not  thrive.  Its  long  tap-root  must  plunge  into  the 
earth  without  obstruction,  otherwise  the  plant  sulk 
fers  and  dies  prematurely.  2d.  Sainfoin. — This 

*  Of  the  grasses  here  named,  sainfoin  is  found  not  to  succeed 
in  the  United  States.  We  have  not  the  chalky  soil  in  which  it 
thrives  best,  and  our  winters  are  considered  too  severe  for  it ; 
and  the  ray  or  rye-grass  is  not  well  adapted  to  our  hot  summers. 
Neither  seem  to  be  congenial  to  our  soil  and  climate. — J.  B. 

t  "  Tante  dos  est  ejus  ut  eum  uno  situ  tricenis  annis  duret 
medica." — Plin  ,  Nat.  Hist.  Such  are  the  valuable  properties  of 
lucerne,  that  it  will  flourish  for  thirty  years  on 'the  same  spot. 


120  AGRICULTURE. 

•* 

grows  well  in  Europe  as  high  as  the  51st  degree  of 
north  latitude.  A  species  of  it  is  found  growing 
spontaneously  in  the  Pays  de  Calais,  which  shows 
itself  earlier  than  the  more  common  or  Spanish  spe- 
cies. Its  produce  is  less  than  that  of  lucerne  ;  but 
the  quality  of  its  herbage,  whether  green  or  dry,  is 
better.  Sheep  are  particularly  fond  of  it.  It  affects 
high,  dry,  naked,  white,  cretaceous  soils ;  amelio- 
rates the  condition  of  these,  and  holds  them  better 
together  than  any  other  plant.  The  following  ex- 
tract may  give  both  instruction  and  encouragement 
to  those  who  would  cultivate  this  plant :  "  In  Cala- 
bria, sainfoin  is  sown  upon  wheat  or  other  stubble, 
which  is  then  burned,  and  the  ashes  made  to  furnish 
a  covering  for  the  grass-seed.  In  the  spring,  with- 
out other  care  or  culture,  the  field  is  found  covered 
thickly  with  sainfoin,  and  converted  into  a  fine 
meadow.  This  grass  crop  is  cut  and  fed  between 
May  and  August,  when  the  ground  is  ploughed  for 
grain,  of  which  the  crop  is  generally  very  abundant. 
But  the  advantages  of  this  husbandry  do  not  end 
here  ;  for,  after  the  grain  is  harvested,  the  earth  re- 
sumes its  covering  of  sainfoin,  which,  in  this  way, 
is  continued  forty  years  and  more,  admitting  every 
second  year  a  crop  of  fine  wheat."*  3d.  Like  sain- 
foin and  lucerne,  clover  is  of  the  leguminous  family, 
and,  though  less  productive  than  the  others,  has 
one  advantage  that  gives  it  a  decided  preference, 
viz.,  its  growing  well  in  a  great  variety  of  soils.  In 
gravel,  in  loam,  in  alluvial  and  calcareous  earths,  it 
obes  well ;  and  we  have  already  seen  that  in  poor 
and  sandy  soils  it  doubles  the  income  of  those  who 
employ  it,  as  well  by  increasing  the  quantity  of  for- 
age, as  by  putting  the  ground  into  a  state  to  yield 
many  and  abundant  future  crops  of  grain.  Still 
there  are  soils,  stiff,  cold,  and  wet,  in  which  it  docs 
not  succeed,  and  in  which  it  ought  to  give  place  to 

*  Grimaldi  on  the  agriculture  of  Calabria. 


MEADOWS.  121 

the  gramineal  family.  4th.  Timothy. — This  grass,  in 
Europe,  is  called  herd-grass,  cat's-tail,  or  phleum 
pratense  (the  botanical  name) ;  but,  as  the  plant  is 
of  Yankee  origin,  we  have  chosen  to  retain  the 
Yankee  denomination.  Its  reputation  abroad  was  at 
one  time  very  high,  and  in  moist  grounds  deserves  to 
be  so  at  all  times ;  but,  being  very  tardy  in  showing 
itself  in  the  spring,  it  has  in  many  places  fallen  into 
disuse.  5th.  Ray  or  rye-grass,  to  the  good  proper- 
lies  of  timothy,  superadds  that  precocity  which  tim- 
othy wants.  "  We  have  seen,"  says  Gilbert,  "  in 
the  canton  of  Basle,  rye-grass  five  feet  high  on  the 
first  day  of  June ;"  and  M.  de  Courset  assures  us 
that  he  has  obtained  "  three  cuttings  from  it  in  one 
year."  Sheep  are  found  to  prefer  it  in  the  spring 
to  any  other  plant ;  and  the  shepherds  of  Spain  have 
a  proverb  which  very  energetically  expresses  its 
nutritive  qualities :  "  Bouccado  van  ventrado,"  a 
mouthful  is  a  bellyful.  We  particularly  invite  the 
attention  of  farmers  having  clay,  or  other  moist  or 
wet  soils,  to  the  cultivation  of  this  and  the  two  fol- 
lowing species  of  grasses.  6th.  Oat-grass,  the  Ave- 
na  elatior  of  botanists,  was  first  cultivated  in  1754, 
and,  having  been  committed  to  a  good  soil,  the  re- 
sults were  highly  favourable.  It  was  accordingly 
recommended  as  yielding  abundance  of  forage,  and 
of  a  good  quality :  and  that  the  first  cutting  might 
take  place  as  early  as  the  last  of  March.  Though 
new  and  extended  experiments  have  in  some  degree 
diminished  this  reputation,  still  enough  of  it  is  left 
to  render  this  grass  a  favourite  with  every  scientific 
agriculturist.  7th.  Of  the  meadow  fox-tail  there  are 
four  species,  but  we  shall  speak  only  of  the  Alope- 
curus  pratensis,  which,  of  all  the  grasses  we  have 
mentioned,  is  the  tallest,  the  most  vigorous,  and 
the  soonest  fit  for  pasturage  or  the  scythe.  Its 
hay  appears  to  be  of  a  better  quality  than  that  of 
the  gramineal  grasses,  because  equally  relished  by 
cows,  horses,  and  sheep.  It  is  only,  however,  in 


122  AGRICULTURE. 

soils  neither  too  moist  nor  too  dry  that  it  attains 
the  perfection  of  which  it  is  susceptible. 

What  remains  of  this  subject  may  be  referred  to 
the  general  principles  of  tillage,  and  the  particular 
preparation  necessary  for  clover  crops,  both  of 
which  may  be  found  in  the  preceding  chapters. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

OF  FARM  CATTLE. 

THESE  consist  of  horses,  mules,  cows,  oxen, 
sheep,  and  hogs.  It  is  not  the  object  of  this  chap- 
ter to  discuss  the  relative  value  of  animals  of  differ- 
ent kinds,  nor  to  explain  the  principles  on  which  an 
individual  of  either  kind  is  preferred  to  another  in- 
dividual of  the  same  kind,  but  merely  to  indicate 
the  uses  of  each,  and  the  modes  most  approved  for 
giving  extension  and  value  to  these  uses.  And, 

I.   Of  the  Horse. 

Of  this  animal  naturalists  admit  but  one  species, 
but  many  and  widely  different  varieties,  which  are 
again  subdivided  under  the  denomination  of  races.* 
At  the  head  of  these,  by  common  consent,  stands 
the  horse  of  Arabia,  and  after  him  the  Persjan,  the 
Barb,  the  Andalusian,  and  the  English.  H*is  flesh 
not  entering,  like  that  of  the  ox,  into  the  general 
and  ordinary  subsistence  of  man,f  he  is  valued  only 

*  Bake  well  and  others  have  shown  that  you  may  multiply 
these  races  at  will.  By  selecting  two  individuals  of  any  given 
shape,  size,  and  colour  which  you  may  prefer,  you  secure  a 
progeny  having  all  the  qualities  of  their  parents.  This  obser- 
vation applies  as  well  to  horned  cattle  and  hogs  as  to  horses, 
and  might  be  usefully  taken  as  a  rule  of  conduct  in  this  country. 

t  Horseflesh  is  eaten  by  the  Negroes  of  Africa,  the  Arabs, 
Tartars,  and  occasionally  by  the  Chinese.  Page  213,  vol.  22d 
Uuffon's  Nat.  Hist. 


OP  FARM  CATTLE.  123 

for  the  beauty  of  his  form,  the  nobleness  of  his  car- 
riage, the  rapidity  of  his  march,  and  the  strength, 
spirit,  and  patience  with  which  he  bears  the  heavi- 
est burdens  and  the  most  ex  ^essive  fatigues. 

Of  these  powers  some  cut  ous  and  extraordinary 
instances  are  recorded.  The  couriers  of  Russia 
travel  from  Petersburgh  to  Tobolsk,  a  distance  of 
19°  26m.,  in  twelve  days.  Their  rate  of  travelling 
is,  of  course,  about  one  hundred  miles  a  day.  What, 
in  equestrian  phrase,  is  called  a  great  mover,  will, 
without  pressing,  trot  640  yards  in  80  seconds,  and, 
if  pressed,  will  go  over  the  same  distance  in  50  sec- 
onds. In  the  first  case,  the  rate  of  moving  is  5  feet 
3  inches  per  second,  and  in  the  other  8  feet  5  inch- 
es. The  Roman  horses,  probably  descendants  from 
Barbs,  ran  at  the  rate  of  27  feet  the  second  of  time  ; 
and  the  British  horse  Childers  is  said  to  have  run 
at  the  rate  of  45  feet  5  inches  ;  and  Stirling,  an- 
other British  horse,  at  the  rate  of  82  1-2  feet  per 
second.*  This  may  be  regarded  as  the  maximum 
of  horse  speed. 

The  ordinary  load  in  France  of  a  four-wheeled 
wagon,  drawn  by  six  horses  on  a  pavementx  is 
10,000  pounds;  that  of  a  cart,  drawn  by  four  hor- 
ses, 5500.  With  these  loads  they  travel  10  leagues 
a  day  for  six  weeks  together.  A  single  horse  has 
been  known  to  draw  500  pounds  at  the  rate  of  140 
yards  in  112  seconds;  and  on  the  pavements  of  Lon- 
don a  single  horse  has  drawn  6000  pounds  for  a 
short  distance,  and  3000  for  a  considerable  distance, 
and  with  facility.  This  appears  to  be  the  maximum 
of  horse  power  in  drawing. 

*  British  Zoology  for  1763-4.  In  Peru  are  two  races  of  hor- 
ses (originally  Andalusian)  well  worth  the  attention  of  the  rich 
amateurs  of  the  United  States.  The  names  by  which  these 
races  are  known  are  the  Parameros  and  the  Aqualillas.  See  Ul- 
loa's  Voyage,  tome  i.,  page  370.  In  Chili  also  is  a  race  which, 
for  beauty,  action,  and  hardiness,  may  be  compared  with  the 
horse  of  Arabia,  and  with  this  advantage,  that  they  are  very 
cheap,  while  those  of  Arabia  are  very  dear.  See  Molina's  Nat 
Hist,  of  Chili,  page  505,  et  sea. 
10 


124  AGRICULTURE. 

Under  the  pack  or  saddle,  300  pounds  is  the  or- 
dinary  load  for  a  horse ;  but,  according  to  M.  Thi- 
roux,  a  dragoon  horse  carries  340  pounds.  This 
includes  the  weight  of  the  rider  and  of  his  arms, 
accoutrements,  and  baggage.  The  well-known  ex- 
periment of  Marshal  Saxe  shows  the  maximum  of 
horse  power  in  this  respect.  He  directed  that  a 
strong  and  vigorous  horse,  while  in  motion,  should 
be  loaded  until  he  fell.  The  effect  was  not  produ- 
ced until  the  load  amounted  to  1200  weight.* 

II.   Of  the  Mule. 

This  is  the  well-known  product  of  a  jack  and  a 
mare,  or  of  a  horse  and  a  jenny,  the  name  given  to 
a  female  ass.  Their  advantages  over  the  horse 
are,  that  they  are  more  patient  of  hunger  and  heat ; 
less  nice  or  delicate  with  regard  to  their  food  ;  sus- 
tain better,  and  for  a  longer  time,  fatigues  of  all 
kinds ;  carry  heavier  burdens ;  are  more  sure  foot- 
ed ;  less  liable  to  sickness,  and  live  to  a  much 
greater  age.  In  Italy  and  Spain  they  are  much 
employed  in  harness,  and  in  the  mountainous  parts 
of  those  countries  for  the  saddle.  Their  value  and 
qualities,  however,  depend  principally  on  the  size 
of  the  jack :  if  he  be  large,  active,  and  strong,  his 
progeny  will  be  proportionably  valuable.  Nothing, 
therefore,  can  be  more  ill-judged  than  employing 
small  jacks. f 

IIL   Of  the  Cow  and  the  Ox. 

It  was  long  supposed  that  this  animal  was  a  na- 
tive of  Europe,  and  that  the  Auroch,  found  wild  in 
the  forests  of  Poland,  was  the  type  of  the  species. 
The  researches  into  comparative  anatomy  of  Cu- 
vier  have  overthrown  this  theory,  and  men  of  sci- 
ence now  substitute  for  it  another,  viz.,  that  the 
cow  is  a  native  of  Asia,  and  has  thence  been  trans- 

*  See  Fourcroy  (of  the  corps  of  engineers)  on  the  powers  of 
the  horse,  quoted  by  the  Nouveau  Cours  d'Agriculture. 

t  The  asses  of  Arabia,  Egypt,  and  the  Barbary  Coast  are  the 
best  In  Sicily  is  a  race  of  inferior  size,  but  of  great  power* 
See  Sonnmi's  Supplement  to  Buffon  on  this  animal. 


OF    FARM    CATTLE.  125 

lated  to  other  parts  of  the  globe.  Be  this  fact  as 
it  may,  her  uses  are  so  many,  so  various,  and  so 
important,  that  we  cannot  hesitate  to  transfer  from 
the  horse  the  distinction  bestowed  upon  him  by  an 
eloquent  writer  of  the  last  century,  and  to  pro- 
nounce the  cow  "  the  noblest  conquest  made  by  man."* 
During  two  thirds  of  her  life,  which  may  be  pro- 
tracted to  twelve  years,  she  is  annually  producing 
her  species,  and  during  the  same  period  yielding  an 
abundant  supply  of  that  Beverage  so  universally 
known  and  so  generally  acceptable  ;  a  beverage  so 
happily  adapted,  from  its  compound  nature  (part 
animal  and  part  vegetable),  to  all  ages  and  condi- 
tions, to  the  young  and  to  the  old,  to  the  poor  am\ 
to  the  rich,  to  the  sick  and  to  the  sound  ;  and  which, 
in  its  concrete  forms  of  butter  and  cheese,  has,  in 
all  civilized  countries,  become  an  article  of  the  first 
necessity.  Nor  is  her  value  diminished  by  death ; 
for,  having  been  fatted  and  prepared  for  market,  her 
flesh  forms  our  most  savoury  and  substantial  food ; 
her  tallow,  in  the  form  of  candles,  supplies  the  ab- 
sence of  natural  light ;  her  skin,  wrought  into  leath- 
er, furnishes  shoes  and  other  articles  rendered  ne- 
cessary by  habit  or  custom  ;  her  horns  are  convert- 
ed into  combs  and  lanterns ;  her  blood  is  essential 
to  the  refinement  of  our  sugars ;  chymistry  draws 
from  her  hoofs  important  uses ;  her  hair  is  made 
to  pad  our  collars  and  saddles,  and,  by  entering  into 
the  construction  of  our  buildings,  adds  to  their 
beauty,  comfort,  and  solidity.  If  in  her  progeny 
(the  ox)  strength  and' speed  be  less  combined  than 
in  the  horse,  it  will  be  also  remembered  that  his 
subsistence  is  cheaper,  and  his  labour  more  contin- 
ued and  persevering ;  that  he  is,  besides,  less  liable 
to  accidents  which  diminish  his  value,  and  that  he 
may  even  become  lame  and  blind  without  eventual 
loss  to  his  owner :  for,  when  prepared  for  the  sham- 

*  Buffon's  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  22. 


126  AGRICULTURE. 

bles,  like  his  parent,  he  gives  us  beef,  tallow,  &c., 
and  those  of  a  superior  kind.  How  important,  then, 
is  it  that  this  useful  animal  should  be  multiplied, 
and  that  pains  should  be  taken  to  ameliorate  the 
breed.  In  England  and  in  Holland,  wealth,  enter- 
prise, and  philosophy  have  combined  to  exalt  the 
character  of  domestic  animals,  and  the  effect  has 
been  to  create  many  new,  artificial,  and  more  per- 
fect races.  These  are  examples  we  ought  to  fol- 
low, and  these  are  the  countries  which  can  best  en- 
able us  to  do  so. 

It  has,  however,  been  found  that,  in  temperatures 
either  very  hot  or  very  cold,  the  bulk  of  the  cow  is 
diminished ;  and  though  it  is  by  no  means  verified 
that  animals  secrete  milk  in  proportion  to  their  size, 
still,  on  other  accounts,  the  largest  cows  may  justly 
be  considered  the  best.  Treatment,  or  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  food,  has  a  still  more  decided  influ- 
ence than  climate  on  animal  growth  and  develop- 
ment, and  hence  it  is  that,  when  the  cows  of  Eng- 
land, Holland,  or  Switzerland  are  transferred  to  pas- 
tures less  abundant  or  nutritive  than  those  in  which 
they  have  been  reared,  or  are  otherwise  put  on  short- 
er allowance  than  that  to  which  they  have  been  ac- 
customed, their  qualities  degenerate,  and  their  pro- 
geny with  them.  The  lesson  that  these  facts  incul- 
cate cannot,  we  believe,  be  mistaken,  and  will  not, 
we  hope,  be  overlooked. 

IV.   Of  Sheep. 

Of  the  different  races  of  sheep,  we  shall  speak 
only  of  two,  those  of  Spain  and  England  ;  because 
in  them'  are  best  united  the  two  great  objects  for 
which  this  animal  are  reared,  wool  and  food. 

The  sheep  of  Spain,  generally  known  under  the 
name  of  Merinoes,  are  composed  of  two  classes,  the 
travelling  and  the  stationary.  The  former  of  these 
is  again  divided  into  two  distinct  races,  called  the 
Leonese  and  the  Sorian ;  while  the  latter,  composed 
of  a  numbei  of  degenerate  breeds,  are  denominated 


OF   FARM    CATTLE.  127 

Charras.  The  Leonese  and  the  Sorian  winter  in 
Estramadura,  and  are  never  parked  or  housed,  ex- 
cepting for  fifteen  days  of  each  year,  at  the  Esqui- 
leos,  or  shearing  houses,  near  Segovia.  After  this 
operation,  their  march  to  the  mountains  begins  in 
two  columns ;  the  one  to  old  Castile  and  the  king- 
dom of  Leon,  the  other  to  the  province  of  Soria, 
and,  subsequently,  to  Navarre  or  the  Pyrenees. 
The  preference  of  the  Leonese  to  the  Sorian  is  suf- 
ficiently established  by  the  fact  that  the  wool  of  the 
former  sells  for  one  fourth,  and  sometimes  for  one 
third  more  than  that  of  the  latter.  But  even  in  this 
pre-eminent  race  there  is  a  marked  difference  be- 
tween the  different  troops  composing  it;  those  of 
the  late  Prince  of  Peace,  of  Nigretta,  of  Montaco, 
of  Peralez,  of  Fernando  Nunez,  and  of  Tlnfantado, 
are  particularly  distinguished  by  the  fineness,  and 
what,  in  technical  language,  is  called  the  nerve  of 
their  wool.* 

The  policy  of  Great  Britain  was  early  directed  to 
the  amelioration  of  sheep.  It  is,  however,  to  Hen- 
ry VIII.  and  to  Elizabeth  that  the  praise  is  partic- 
ularly due  of  importing  into  England  sheep  of  the 
finest  Spanish  races ;  of  promulgating  rules  and  reg- 
ulations for  their  proper  management ;  and,  lastly,  of 
commencing  that  prohibitory  system,  which  has  se- 
cured their  continuance,  and,  wnatis  of  still  greater 
importance,  the  exclusive  fabrication  of  the  wool  they 
produce.  It  was  not,  however,  in  the  power  of  laws 
entirely  to  abrogate,  or  even  materially  to  alter,  the 
effect  of  climate.  That  of  England  did  not  so  much 
favour  the  production  of  fine  as  of  long  wool,  and 
hence  it'is  that  the  wool  of  that  country  is  not  so 
remarkable  for  the  former  as  for  the  latter  of  these 
qualities.  But  in  all  cases,  when  our  object  is  to 
unite  the  two  great  products  of  wool  and  flesk,  it  is 
to  the  English  breeds  we  should  look  for  the  best 

*  The  Saxon  sheep  of  the  Merino  family  were  rot  known  to 
us  when  this  treatise  was  written. — J.  B. 


128  AGRICULTURE. 

means  of  doing  it.  The  flesh  of  the  pure  Merino 
is  neither  so  abundant  nor  so  well  flavoured  as  that 
of  the  mixed  races,  and,  when  brought  to  the  great- 
est perfection,  the  quantity  of  his  wool  is  less.  His 
carcass,  when  prepared  for  market,  does  not  exceed 
10  pounds  a  quarter,  and  the  average  weight  of  his 
fleece  will  not  rise  above  four  pounds;  whereas  the 
best  English  races  give  25  pounds  the  quarter,  and 
fleeces  weighing  7  and  8  pounds  each. 

V.  Of  the  Hog. 

The  wild  boar  is  considered  the  type  of  this  spe- 
cies, of  which  there  are  several  varieties.  The  most 
distinguished  of  these  are  the  Asiatic  or  Chinese  hog, 
the  European  hog,  with  long,  broad,  and  pendant  ears, 
and  the  Solipede,  or  horse-hoofed  hog  of  Sweden.* 
As  this  animal  is  principally  useful  as  food,  the  im- 
provers of  the  species  have  aimed  only  at  forming 
a  race  which,  with  the  least  expense  and  in  the 
shortest  time,  should  acquire  the  greatest  bulk  and 
the  highest  degree  of  fatness.  It  is  on  this  princi- 
ple that  the  Chinese  hog,  which  fats  promptly  and 
easily,  but  which  attains  only  to  a  small  size,  is  with 
great  propriety  mixed  with  the  hog  of  Europe,  which 
acquires  a  much  greater  bulk,  but  is  proportionably 
slow  and  difficult  of  fattening.  The  result  of  this 
mixture  has  been  many  improved  races,  at  the  head 
of  which  stands  thenog  of  Parma,  and  those  known 
in  England  by  the  names  of  the  Bakewell  and  By- 
field  breed  s.f 

The  weight  of  the  hog  at  eighteen  months  or  two 
years  of  age  (taking  for  granted  a  regular  and  suf- 
ficient nourishment),  varies  from  two  to  four  hun- 
dred pounds.  Buffon  mentions  a  hog  killed  in  Eng- 

*  This  is  the  Sus  angula  indivisa  of  Linnaeus.  Aristotle  was 
the  first  to  mention  this  species,  and,  after  him,  Pliny.  Linnaeus 
says,  it  is  common  in  tlpsal  and  other  cantons  of  Sweden. 
A.menitat.  Acad.,  tome  v.,  page  450. 

t  The  Berkshire  has  since  come  into  notice,  and  has  obtained 
a  decided  preference  over  other  varieties. — J.  B. 


OF    FARM    CATTLE.  129 

Jand  which  weighed  850  pounds.  Sonnini,  his  com- 
mentator, mentions  another,  killed  in  France,  which 
weighed  990  pounds ;  and  Mr.  Jefferson,  a  third,  kill- 
ed in  Virginia,  which  reached  the  enormous  weight 
of  1200  pounds.* 

The  value  of  the  hog  is  increased  by  their  natural 
fecundity,  which  much  exceeds  that  of  any  other  spe- 
cies of  domestic  animal.  This  subject  was  thought 
worthy  the  pen  of  Marshal  Vauban,  who  left  behind 
him  a  manuscript  calculation  of  the  offspring  of  a 
single  sow.  The  paper  was  read  in  the  Institute  of 
France  some  years  ago,  was  heard  with  great  inter- 
est, and  gave  an  enormous  result,  but  not  sufficient- 
ly recollected  to  be  stated  here. 

As,  from  the  constitution  of  the  human  mind, 
there  have  been  skeptics  on  all  subjects,  little  and 
great,  so  on  this  we  find  some  doubting  whether  the 
hog  did  not,  from  his  insatiable  appetite,  consume 
more  during  his  life  than  the  amount  of  his  value  at 
the  time  of  his  death.  These  doubts  could  not  fail 
to  engage  calculating  men  in  ascertaining  this  point. 
Their  experiments  show  a  profit  of  eight  dollars  on 
every  hog  reared  and  fed  to  the  age  of  two  years, 
by  persons  having  no  farms,  and  obliged  to  buy  ev- 
ery article  going  to  their  nourishment.  How  much 
greater,  then,  the  profits  of  those  who  have  the 
means  of  subsisting  them  on  grasses  and  roots, 
which  cost  only  the  labour  of  raising  ? 

To  these  specific  remarks  upon  different  animals, 
we  now  proceed  to  add  a  few  observations  on  the 
breeding  of  cattle,  and  a  brief  view  of  the  general 
principles  on  which  the  fattening  of  such  of  them  as 
enter  into  the  subsistence  of  man  more  peculiarly 
depends.  And, 

1st.   Of  the  breeding  of  Cattle. 

It  rarely  happens  that  the  breeders  of  cattle  are 
the  fatteners  of  them.  The  first  of  these  employ- 

*  Notes  on  Virginia. 


130  AGRICULTURE. 

ments  seems  more  particularly  to  belong  to  those 
who,  other  circumstances  being  favourable,  are  re- 
mote from  markets  ;  the  second  to  those  who,  from 
local  situation  or  navigable  streams,  are  convenient 
to  markets.  In  the  breeding  business  two  condi- 
tions are  indispensable  to  its  success :  1st,  that  the 
sires  of  each  species  be  well  chosen,  because  their 
qualities  and  appearance  have  much  more  influence 
on  the  character  of  the  offspring  than  those  of  the 
females  ;  and,  2d,  that,  during  pregnancy,  the  fe- 
males be  abundantly  fed,  and  otherwise  subjected 
to  no  hard  or  injurious  treatment.* 

2d.   Of  the  fattening  of  Cattle. 

The  objects  in  fattening  cattle  are  two,  the  increase 
of  tallow,  which  is  an  important  article  in  domestic 
economy;  and  the  improvement  of  the  fleshy  or  mus- 
cular parts  ;  the  lean  meat  of  fat  animals  being  better 
flavoured  and  more  nutritive  than  that  of  poor  ones. 
The  means  of  effecting  this  object  are  either  living 
vegetables,  or  those  which  have  been  cut,  dried, 
and  stored  for  use.  Under  the  first  head  are  the 
whole  family  of  the  grasses,  and  under  the  second, 
grains,  roots,  pease,  and  beans.  When  we  resort  to 
the  first,  the  only  care  necessary  is,  that  the  provis- 
ion of  plants  be  both  abundant  and  nutritive.  Up- 
land pastures,  where  they  unite  these  conditions, 
best  fulfil  this  intention ;  but  the  fat  of  cattle  thus 
fed,  though  better  distributed  (the  effect,  as  we  be- 
lieve, of  exercise),  is  less  in  quantity,  and  of  an  in- 
ferior quality.  The  second  mode,  which  is  called 
stall-feeding,  is  more  difficult  and  expensive,  and  re- 
quires great  attention  to  the  repose  of  the  animal, 
to  his  cleanliness,  and  to  the  caprices  of  his  appe- 
tite. In  England,  where  this  business  is  most  prac- 
tised and  best  understood,  they  envelop  the  head  of 

*  The  inhabitants  of  the  Boullonois,  in  France,  employ  the 
mare  instead  of  the  horse  for  all  agricultural  purposes  ;  because, 
besides  labouring  the  soil,  they  give  yearly  a  foal,  winch  they 
eell  at  eight  months  to  the  graziers  at  Normandy. 


OF    FARM    CATTLE.  131 

the  fattening  animal  in  several  folds  of  woollen  cloth 
so  as  to  deprive  him,  in  a  great  degree,  of  the  pow- 
er of  hearing,  and  altogether  of  that  of  seeing.  The 
doors  of  his  stable  are  opened  but  once  a  day,  to 
change  his  litter,  and  his  food  and  drink  are  given 
through  loopholes  opening  into  his  manger,  which 
are  afterward  immediately  closed.  With  respect 
to  feeding,  the  first  rule  is  to  give  little  at  a  time 
and  often  ;  because  experience  has  shown  that  ani- 
mals that  eat  much  in  a  short  time  do  not  fatten  so 
well  as  those  which  eat  less  at  a  time,  and  more 
slowly  and  frequently.  The  second  rule  is  to  begin 
the  course  with  cabbages  and  turnips ;  then  to  em- 
ploy carrots  and  potatoes ;  and,  lastly,  Indian,  oat, 
or  barley  meal,  the  marsh  bean,  or  the  gray  pea. 
These  aliments  ought  to  be  varied  five  or  six  times 
a  day,  and  oftener  if  convenient;  and,  instead  of 
always  reducing  them  into  flour,  there  is  an  advan- 
tage in  sometimes  boiling  them.  A  little  salt,  given 
daily,  is  very  useful,  and  for  drink  clean  water,  but 
neither  frequently  nor  in  great  quantity.  Warm 
water,  by  its  temperature,  most  favours  digestion, 
but,  if  long  continued,  will  enfeeble  the  stomach.  It 
ought,  therefore,  to  be  employed  only  towards  the 
end  of  the  term.  The  fattening  is  complete  when 
the-  superficial  inequalities  of  the  animal,  whether 
muscular  or  bony,  are  filled  up  ;  when  his  body  pre- 
sents only  a  round  and  smooth  surface ;  when  he 
becomes  drowsy  and  inert,  dislikes  motion,  and 
is  apparently  insensible  to  everything  about  him. 
These  are  the  signals  for  death,  and  the  sooner  you 
inflict  it  after  their  appearance  the  better;  for, 
should  the  feeding  be  farther  urged,  you  run  the 
risk  of  inducing  the  disease  called  the  melting  of  the 
grease,  or,  in  more  scientific  language,  the  reabsorp- 
tion  of  it  by  the  blood,  which  is  always  fatal. 

They  who  are  at  all  acquainted  with  the  subject 
on  which  we  write,  need  hardly  be  told  that  there 
are  many  circumstances  independent  of  food,  clean- 


132  AGRICULTURE. 

liness,  and  quiet,  which  influence  the  fattening  of 
cattle.  We  shall  mention  them  sepatately,  and  add 
a  few  words  to  each  in  explanation. 

1st.  Constitution. — If  this  be  not  sound  and  heal- 
thy, no  care  or  expense  will  be  sufficient  to  cor- 
rect it.  The  animal  will  want  appetite,  or  have  too 
much  of  it,  and  what  it  eats  will  not  better  its  con- 
dition. 

2d.  Alteration. — The  flesh  of  unaltered  males  is 
hard,  fibrous,  and  ill-flavoured,  and  that  of  females, 
not  spayed,  far  inferior  to  the  flesh  of  those  which 
have  undergone  that  operation.  Where  either  are 
early  and  completely  altered,  the  animals  become 
more  docile,  less  restless,  and  fat  with  great  facil- 
ity. 

3d.  Temperature. —  Whoever  makes  the  experi- 
ment will  find  that  this  consideration  is  very  impor- 
tant. The  cold  of  winter,  the  heat  of  summer,  and 
the  capricious  character  of  the  spring,  are  all  ad- 
verse to  the  fattening  of  cattle,  though  perhaps  not 
equally  so.  The  autumn,  on  the  other  hand,  long 
and  temperate,  is  the  true  season  for  that  business, 
not  only  from  the  greater  abundance  of  food  which 
is  then  to  be  found,  but  because  the  transpiration 
of  the  animal  is  then  first  checked,  and  immediately 
converted  into  tallow.  And, 

4th.  Age. — Tallow  is  formed  from  the  surplus 
nourishment  given  to  animals  beyond  that  necessa- 
ry to  their  mere  physical  development ;  whence  it 
follows,  that  those  which  have  not  attained  their 
full  growth  are  fatted  with  difficulty,  and  only  by 
extraordinary  means.  Calves,  for  example,  can 
only  be  fatted  by  great  quantities  of  milk,  to  which 
must  often  be  added  eggs,  barley,  oat  meal,  or  the 
flour  of  beans  and  pease ;  and  with  all  this  abundance 
and  selection  of  food,  they  yield  little  interior  fat 
or  tallow.  Whereas  oxen,  at  six  years  of  age,  with 
correspondent  treatment,  give  large  quantities  of 
that  article.  Old  cattle  are  also,  from  loss  of  teeth, 


DAIRY.  133 

debility  of  stomach,  or  other  internal  disorganiza- 
tion, difficult  to  fatten.  These  facts  sufficiently  in- 
dicate what,  on  this  head,  ought  to  be  our  practice ; 
to  fatten  cattle  as  soon  after  they  have  attained  their 
growth  as  possible.  Oxen  generally  attain  their 
growth  at  five  or  six  years,  and  sheep  and  hogs  at 
two. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

• 

OF  THE  DAIRY. 

THE  business  of  the  dairy,  besides  its  connexion 
with  the  subject  of  the  last  chapter,  is  too  impor- 
tant in  itself  to  be  omitted  in  any  professed  trea- 
tise on  Agriculture.  We  shall  therefore  consign 
what  we  have  to  say  upon  it  to  tile  present  chapter. 
A  few  preliminary  observations  may  be  proper. 

Milk  is  the  well-known  basis  of  all  the  operations 
of  the  dairy.  Few  things  have  more  engaged  the 
attention  of  chymists.  Boyle,  Boerhave,  Hoffman, 
and  Macquer,  all  the  old  school  and  many  of  the 
new,*  have  employed  themselves  in  detecting  its 
constituent  parts,  and  in  establishing  their  several 
proportions.  In  the  first  branch  of  the  inquiry  they 
have  sufficiently  succeeded,  and  we  accordingly 
know  that  this  very  important  fluid  is  principally 
composed  of  an  oily  matter,  of  curd,  of  an  essen- 
tial salt  called  sugar  of  milk,  and  of  serum.  But, 
in  the  other  branch  of  the  inquiry,  so  various  have 
been  the  results  of  experiments  made  on  the  milk 
of  different  animals,  and  of  the  same  animal  at  dif- 
ferent times,  that  it  continues  to  be  the  reproach 
of  chymistry;  and  we  have  now  before  us  the  ac- 

*  HaHer,  Brisson,  Deyeux,  Parmentier,  Fourcroy,  &c.,  &c 


134  AGRICULTURE. 

knowledgment  of  M.  Perthuys,  of  the  French  In- 
stitute, that  "  to  determine  these  proportions  with 
the  necessary  exactness  is  impossible."  Fortunate- 
ly, however,  the  pride  of  science  is  more  affected 
by  this  failure  than  the  interests  of  agriculture. 

Milk  is  reducible  to  two  species :  that  of  rumina- 
ting animals,  and  that  of  animals  which  do  not  ru- 
minate. Milk  of  the  first  description  abounds  in 
cream  and  in  curd,  that  of  the  other  in  sugar  and 
whey ;  and  it  is  on  this  distinction  that  the  milk  of 
cows,  sheep,  and  goats  is  principally  employed  for 
the  purposes  of  the  dairy,  while  that  of  mares  and 
asses  is,  with  similar  propriety,  yielded  to  the  ser- 
vice of  medicine.* 

Observation  has  shown  that  this  secretion  is  much 
influenced  by  circumstances  of  weather,  of  aliment, 
and  of  age.  A  stormy  day  lessens  its  quantity  and 
alters  its  quality;  bad  or  deficient  food  has  a  sim- 
ilar but  greater  effect,  and  the  fact  is  well  known 
that  very  young  and  very  old  cows  give  poor  milk. 
Mild  weather,  on  the  other  hand,  promotes  the  se- 
cretion, and  soft,  nourishing  aliments,  easy  of  diges- 
tion and  in  sufficient  quantity,  make  it  redundant. 

A  fact  established  by  the  labours  of  Messrs.  De- 
yeux  and  Parmentier,  and  long  before  known  to  the 
dairy  maid,  is,  that  the  milk  first  drawn  is  serous; 
that  that  which  succeeds  is  less  so,  and  that  what 
are  commonly  called  stripping*  are  nearly  all  cream. 

Having  premised  these  facts,  we  proceed  to  the 
business  of  butter-making,  the  theory  of  which  is 
reducible  to  the  following  heads  : 

1st.  Butter  is  found  suspended  in  milk,  in  the 
form  of  a  white  and  liquid  oil.  This  suspension  is 
the  effect  of  the  saccharine  matter  and  the  curd, 
which  are  among  the  component  parts  of  milk. 

*  The  medical  uses  of  asses'  milk  have  come  down  to  us 
from  Hippocrates  and  Galen.  The  milk  of  mares^is  only  estab- 
lished in  the  pharmacopoeia  of  Tartary,  where,  according  to  the 
reports  made  by  travellers,  it  is  food,  physic,  and  brandy. 


DAIRY.  135 

2d.  In  a  state  of  repose  and  in  a  cool  tempera- 
ture, this  oily  matter  separates  itself,  in  a  great  de- 
gree, from  the  serum  and  curd,  mounts  to  the  sur- 
face, and  there  forms  a  pellicle  of  greater  or  less 
density. 

3d.  When  in  contact  with  atmospheric  air,  it 
draws  from  it  a  portion  of  oxygen,  and  thence  ac- 
quires a  yellow  colour  and  a  disposition  to  harden. 

4th.  Agitation  and  pressure  are  necessary  to  sep- 
arate it  from  the  serum  and  curd  which  may  have 
mounted  with  it.  And, 

5th.  To  correct  its  tendency  to  decomposition, 
which  first  shows  itself  by  a  rancid  smell  and  taste, 
it  must  be  subjected  to  the  action  of  heat,  or  a  por- 
tion of  the  muriate  of  soda  must  be  incorporated 
with  it.  From  this  theory  of  butter-making,  it  will 
be  easy  to  deduce  the  rules  necessary  to  practice. 

1st.  The  formation  of  cream  is,  as  we  have  seen, 
a  process  of  nature  which  we  best  promote  by  giv- 
ing to  our  dairies  a  northern  exposition ;  by  keep- 
ing them  perfectly  clean ;  because  filth,  besides  other 
mischief,  is  predisposed  to  fermentation,  and  is,  of 
course,  productive  of  heat;  and,  lastly,  by  so  form- 
ing our  pans  as  to  make  them  narrow  at  the  bottom 
and  wide  at  the  top,  to  the  end  that  they  may  offer 
to  the  atmosphere  the  largest  possible  surface.* 

3d.  The  separation  of  the  butter  from  the  milk, 
with  which  it  is  still  connected,  is  our  own  labour, 
and  must  be  carefully  and  thoroughly  performed. 
This  is  called  churning,  and  ought  to  be  only  a  mod- 
erate and  continued  agitation.  If  the  movement  be 
too  slow  or  frequently  interrupted,  the  effect  intend- 
ed is  not  produced ;  and  if  hurried  and  violent,  the 
cream  is  too  much  heated,  and  yields  a  white  and 
curdlike  butter.  When  this  operation  is  well  per- 
formed, the  butter  is  found  adhering  to  the  staff  and 
flyers  'of  the  churn,  is  of  an  agreeable  taste  and  col- 
our, and  of  a  certain  degree  of  consistency. 

*  See,  in  Fourcroy's  Chymistry,  vol.  ix ,  the  effects  of  cover- 
ing milk-pans. 


136  AGRICULTURE. 

3d.  To  increase  this  last,  and  more  perfectly  to 
discharge  the  milk  from  the  butter,  the  latter  is 
again  subjected  to  frequent  pressure  and  washing  in 
cold  water,  which,  readily  uniting  with  the  milk, 
carries  it  along  with  it. 

4th.  What  now  remains  is  to  employ  the  means 
necessary  to  its  preservation.  These  are  of  two 
kinds;  a  small  portion  of  common  salt,  well  dried 
and  pulverized,  may  be  wrought  into  the  mass,  and 
distributed  as  equally  as  possible;  or  the  fresh  mass, 
subjected  to  a  demi-fusion,  will  throw  up  a  frothy 
and  feculent  matter,  which  must  be  carefully  taken 
off,  and  which,  if  neither  evaporated  nor  skimmed 
in  this  way,  nor  absorbed  by  the  salt  in  the  other, 
would  produce  the  rancidity  of  which  we  have  al- 
ready spoken.  The  butter  of  Prevalais,  the  finest 
in  Europe,  is  prepared  after  this  last  mode.  The 
secret  was  long  and  well  kept,  but  was  at  length  di- 
vulged by  M.  Tessier,  about  the  year  1809. 

Of  cheese-making. 

The  curd  of  milk  is  known  to  be  the  basis  of 
cheese,  and  the  theory  of  making  this  may  be  brought 
under  three  heads. 

1st.  Turning  the  milk,  or  separating  the  curd  from 
the  other  constituents  of  milk,  by  a  chymical  pro- 
cess, or  by  permitting  it  to  separate  spontaneously. 

2d.  Expressing  what  remains  of  these  from  the  curd 
by  mechanical  means  ;  and, 

3d.  Seasoning  the  mass,  by  the  introduction  of 
some  matter  of  conservative  quality,  as  muriate  of 
soda,  sage,  balm,  aromatic  clover,  &c.,  &c. 

These  principles  may  be  much  varied,  and,  under 
different  managements,  will  produce  cheeses  of 
very  different  species,  which  may,  however,  be  gen- 
eralized as  follows : 

1st.  Those  in  the  fabrication  of  which  the  coagu- 
lation of  the  milk  is  spontaneous.  This  species  re- 
tains a  great  degree  of  softness,  is  peculiarly  liable 
to  decomposition,  and  is  therefore  used  in  a  shor* 


DAIRY.  137 

time  after  being  made.  Such  is  the  cream  cheese, 
and  the  cheeses  of  Viry,  Mont  Didier,  and  Mont 
d'Or. 

2d.  Those  which  have  been  deprived  of  their  se- 
rosity  by  means  only  of  compression.  Such  are 
the  cheeses  of  Holland,  of  Cantal  in  France,  &c. 
And, 

3d.  Those  to  which  have  been  applied,  not  only 
the  action  of  the  press,  but  of  fire.  Such  are  the 
cheeses  known  by  the  name  of  Gruyere,  Parmesan, 
and  Cheshire.* 

Of  these  different  species  it  is  our  intention  to 
speak  only  of  the  second  and  third,  because  these 
form  the  cheeses  of  commerce,  and  have  most  con- 
nexion with  the  public  interest. 

Turning  the  milk,  which  is  the  first  step  in  the 
process,  may  be  effected  by  many  different  sub- 
stances, such  as  vegetable  acids  and  astringents  ; 
but  the  matter  generally,  if  not  universally  employ- 
ed, is  either  the  second  stomach  of  the  calf  or  its 
contents,  which  are  called  rennet.  A  portion  of 
either  put  into  the  milk,  which  must  be  left  in  a 
state  of  repose,  will  in  a  few  hours  produce  the  de- 
sired separation.  The  quantity  of  rennet  employed 
is  not,  however,  a  matter  of  indifference.  If  too 
much  be  used,  the  curd  will  remain  in  parcels,  with- 
out consistency,  and  altogether  deprived  of  the 
cream  of  the  milk.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  quan- 
tity employed  be  too  small,  the  separation  of  the 
curd  from  the  serum  will  not  be  complete.  The 
exact  quantity  necessary  is  an  affair  of  experience, 
which  only,  a  number  of  trials  on  different  portions 
of  milk  enables  one  to  regulate  and  adjust.  A  cir- 

*  The  Schabzieger  (cheese  made  in  Switzerland)  is  of  a  dif 
ferent  kind.  Instead  of  the  curd,  the  Swiss  employ  the  sedi 
ment  of  the  serum,  and  macerate  in  it  a  few  of  the  leaves,  stems, 
or  seeds  of  the  trifolium  pderatum,  or  blue  clover.  It  is  this 
which  gives  to  the  Schabzieger  its  peculiar  and  highly  aromatic 
taste  and  smell. 


138  AGRICULTURE. 

cumstance  of  still  greater  importance,  but  of  less 
difficulty,  is  that  of  determining  the  character  of 
the  rennet.  If  this  emit  any  strong  or  disagreeable 
odour,  it  is  bad,  and  should  not  be  employed,  as  it 
will  infallibly  communicate  to  the  curd  its  own  of- 
fensive qualities. 

As  soon  as  the  curd  is  separated,  it  must  be  bro- 
ken into  pieces,  so  that  the  serum,  which  is  now  col- 
lected into  little  cells,  may  have  the  means  of  es- 
caping. By  this  operation  the  curd  is  reduced  to  a 
paste,  which  acquires  coherency  as  fast  as  the  fluid 
is  separated  from  it.  This  paste  is  now  put  into 
moulds,  and  compressed  until  a  farther  portion  of 
the  moisture  is  expelled.  When  this  effect  is  pro- 
duced the  curd  is  again  divided,  squeezed  by  the 
hand,  replaced  in  the  moulds,  and  subjected  to  heavy 
weights,  which  expel  the  last  remaining  drops  of 
the  whey.  If  the  weather  be  warm,  the  cheeses 
will  swell  and  cavities  appear  on  their  surfaces ; 
an  effect  of  the  disengagement  of  air,  which  is  the 
sign  of  interior  fermentation,  and  the  signal  for  re- 
moving the  cheeses  to  the  drying  room,  and  begin- 
ning the  application  of  salt  to  their  surfaces  and 
sides.  This  application  must  be  continued  daily, 
and  the  cheeses  be  turned  as  often,  so  that  the  salt 
be  equally  distributed  throughout  them.  If  they 
present  a  dry  surface,  they  should  be  wetted  with 
salted  whey ;  and  if  a  frothy  appearance,  they  should 
be  carefully  wiped  and  the  outer  rind  scraped  with 
a  blunt  knife.  They  will  soon  acquire  the  neces- 
sary hardness  and  the  proper  colour.* 

In  these  operations  we  have  described  the  mode 
of  making  cheeses  deprived  of  their  serosity  by 
compression  only.  "What  we  have  yet  to  say  ap- 
plies to  those  in  the  making  of  which  fire  is  a  ne- 
cessary agent.  The  milk  destined  for  these  is 

*  The  Italians  employ  saffron,  and  the  English  the  bixa,  to 
colour  their  cheeses.  These  are  only  expedients  to  make  net* 
cheese  pass  for  old  in  the  market. 


DAIRY.  139 

placed  in  a  boiler  and  on  a  moderate  fire ;  the  ren- 
net is  then  applied,  and  the  milk  stirred  without  in- 
terruption. The  moment  the  action  of  the  rennet 
becomes  apparent,  the  boiler  is  taken  from  the  fire 
and  the  contents  left  undisturbed.  A  coagulation 
soon  takes  place,  when  a  portion  of  the  serum  must 
be  removed,  and  the  remaining  portion  be  left  to 
boil  the  curd,  which  is  seen  floating  in  distinct  par- 
cels or  lumps.  The  boiler  must  now  be  replaced 
on  the  fire,  and  the  mass  be  continually  stirred 
until  the  curd  takes  a  degree  of  coherency.  When 
this  effect  is  produced  the  boiling  is  complete,  and 
the  curds,  collected  into  masses,  are  taken  from  the 
serum  and  committed  to  moulds.  The  press  is  now 
employed  and  the  salt  applied,  as  in  the  preceding 
directions.  During  three  weeks  or  a  month,  the 
moulds  are  gently  and  gradually  tightened,  and,  so 
soon  as  a  superabundant  moisture  appears  on  the 
surface  of  the  cheese,  the  salting  is  discontinued.* 
Various  means  have  been  used  to  improve  the 
qualities  of  cheese,  besides  those  employed  in  the 
process  of  fabrication.  Though  we  give  little  credit 
to  these  devices,  still,  as  others  may  have  more 
faith  than  ourselves,  it  may  not  be  improper  to  men- 
tion some  of  them.  The  most  simple  and  most 
easily  employed  are,  rubbing  them  with  oil,  with 
butter  not  salted,  with  the  lees  of  wine,  and  some- 
times enveloping  them  with  linen  dipped  in  vinegar, 
or  in  new  hay  moistened  with  warm  water.  An- 
other, more  compounded  and  not  so  easily  obtained, 
has  fallen  within  the  scope  of  our  reading.  It  is, 
given  by  M.  Chazotte,  inspector  of  mines  to  the 
Duke  of  Parma,  who  says  of  it  "  that  cheeses  the 
most  dry  and  of  the  worst  quality,  if  moistened  daily 
for  twenty  or  thirty  days  with  a  liquor  composed  of 
strong  vinegar  and  alkalized  nitre,  and  which  en- 
tirely resembles  the  foliated  earth  of  tartar,  known 

*  This  appearance  shows  that  the  absorption  of  salt  is  com- 
plete. 


140  AGRICULTURE. 

to  chymists  and  physicians,  will  become  excellent." 
What  on  this  head  is  suggested  by  our  own  expe- 
rience is,  that,  if  not  made  better,  they  are  assured- 
ly best  preserved  by  dark  apartments,  neither  very 
dry  nor  very  humid,  and  by  shelves  or  tables  fre- 
quently washed,  and  not  containing  in  them  any  res- 
inous matter. 

Of  the  residuum  or  whey  left  after  cheese-ma- 
king. 

This  is  not  without  its  uses,  and  some  of  them  im- 
portant. The  medicinal  virtues  of  whey  have  been 
long  acknowledged  and  much  celebrated,  and  ap- 
pear to  be  beyond  even  the  reach  of  time,  which 
has  neither  abated  their  force  nor  diminished  their 
fame ;  for,  when  all  other  remedies  fail,  the  modern 
valetudinarian,  like  the  ancient,  is  dismissed  to 
mountain  air  and  whey  diet.  The  lives  of  literary 
men  furnish  many  striking  instances  of  its  nourish- 
ing as  well  as  its  medicinal  properties.  Boerhave 
persevered  in  the  use  of  it,  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
food,  for  many  months ;  and  Fergusbn  for  many 
years.  Its  effect  in  fattening  hogs  is  universally 
known.  This  nutritive  property  exists  in  the  mu- 
cus sugar  with  which  it  abounds ;  the  extraction  of 
which  has  long  employed  the  science  and  industry 
of  the  Swiss  cantons.* 

*  See  Lichtenstein  and  Rocol  on  the  sugar  of  milk.  The 
maximum  of  its  quantity  l-28th ;  the  minimum  l-60th.  Scheele 
has  shown  that  this  saccharine  matter  differs  essentially  from 
the  sugar  of  canes.  See  Fourcroy's  Chymistry  vol  ii. 


ORCHARDS.  141 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

OF   ORCHARDS. 

THESE  are  generally  composed  of  apple,  pear, 
peach,  and  cherry  trees.  The  apple  has  been  known 
from  the  most  remote  antiquity,  and,  from  the  names 
given  to  it,  would  appear  to  have  been  a  native  of 
many  different  countries.* 

About  the  close  of  the  15th  century,  the  varieties 
of  this  fruit  in  Europe  were  multiplied  to  the  num- 
ber of  forty-six,!  and  it  is  not  to  be  doubted  but 
that  four  additional  centuries  have  much  increased 
this  amount.  While,  however,  the  line  was  length- 
ening in  this  direction,  it  was  shortening  in  another ; 
for,  according  to  the  philosophy  of  the  present  day, 
vegetables,  like  animals,  perish  not  only  individu- 
ally, but  by  whole  races. J 

The  uses  of  the  apple  are  various.  Besides  those 
of  the  table,  it  yields  the  well-known  liquor  called 
cider,  which  is  again  convertible  into  brandy.  We 
have,  in  our  country,  orchards  which  annually  pro- 
duce from  five  to  eight  hundred  dollars.  In  the 
view  of  profit,  therefore,  fruit  is  an  important  ob- 
ject to  the  agriculturist. § 

*  The  Syrian,  Scanian,  Pelusian,  &c.  About  one  hundred 
years  before  Christ,  the  Romans  began  to  call  them  after  par- 
ticular men  who  had  been  instrumental  in  removing  them  ;  a.» 
the  Appian,  or  Pomme  D'Apiof  the  French,  after  Claudius  Ap- 
pius. 

f  See  Olivier  de  Serres. 

j  See  Davy's  Elements. 

()  One  of  the  most  important  uses  of  the  apple  in  the  present 
day,  and  to  which  it  was  not  formerly  applied,  or  but  partially, 
is  the  feeding  and  fattening  of  pigs  and  other  farm-stock.  For 
this  purpose  alone,  apple-orchards  now  constitute  one  of  the 
most  profitable  objects  of  farm  culture. — J.  B. 


142  AGRICULTURE. 

The  pear  is  less  difficult  with  regard  to  soil  than 
the  appl^tree.  We  have  seen  it  grow  well  in  light 
sand ;  and  a  part  of  Normandy,  called  Bocage,  the 
soil  of  which  is  a  stiff  clay,  is  renowned  for  its 
pears,  and  for  a  liquor  called  Perry,  made  from 
their  juices.* 

Oliver  de  Serres  counted  sixty-two  varieties  of 
the  pear;  and,  according  to  the  treatise  of  M.  Van 
Mons,  published  in  1808,  the  number  then  cultivated 
in  Europe  amounted  to  more  than  six  hundred.  Of 
these  we  shall  name  a  few,  in  the  order  in  which 
they  ripen.  The  Muscat  rAllemand,  in  May  ;  the 
St.  John  and  the  Bergamot  of  Holland,  in  June  ;  the 
Petit  Muscat  and  the  Cuisse  Madame,  or  Jargonelle, 
in  July;  the  Salviat  and  the  Bon  Chretien  d'Ete 
Musque,  in  August ;  the  Beurre  Gris,  in  Septem- 
ber;  the  Bergamot  Suisse  and  Messire  Jean,  in  Oc- 
tober; the  Bon  Chretien  Turc  and  the  fall  Berga- 
mot, in  November ;  the  Chasserais,  the  Beurre 
d'Hiver,  the  Merveille  d'Hiver,  the  Vergouleuse,  the 
St.  Germain,  and  the  Sarrussin,  in  December.^ 

*  When  made  without  the  addition  of  water,  Perry  is  an  ex- 
cellent liquor,  and  keeps  well  in  bottles. 

t  We  offer  this  list  as  a  direction  to  those  who  may  wish  to 
obtain  the  best  succession  of  crops,  and  have  therefore  retained 
the  names  under  which  they  are  known  abroad. 

J  The  pears  here  named  belong  to  the  old  catalogue  ;  the 
quality  of  the  new  kinds,  named  by  Van  Mons,  not  then  being 
known  to  us.  The  new  varieties  have  since  been  introduced  and 
fruited,  and  have  added  much  to  the  value  and  variety,  of  this 
fruit.  We  recommend  the  following,  embracing  mostly  new 
varieties,  as  a  better  selection  than  the  one  named  in  the  text. 
They  should  be  added  to  old  collections,  and  in  new  plantations 
may  be  advantageously  introduced  as  substitutes  for  old,  and, 
in  many  cases,  degenerated  varieties.  Beginning  with  the  early 
varieties,  we  recommend  the  Citron  des  Carmes,  Jargonelle, 
Summer  Rose,  &c.,  ripening  in  July  and  August ;  the  Belle  et 
Bonne,  Vergaleu,  or  White  Doyenne,  Flemish  Beauty,  Neill, 
&c.,  as  ripening  in  September  :  the  Autumn  Bergamot,  Aston 
Town,  Capiaumont,  Beurre d'CEil,  Duchesse  d'Angouleme,  Ma- 
ria Louise,  &c.,  ripening  in  October;  the  Forello,  Glout  Mor- 
ceau,  Napoleon,  Colmar,  &c.,  ripening  in  November ;  the 


ORCHARDS.  143 

The  cherry-tree  is  said  to  have  been  first  brought 
to  Europe  by  Lucullus,  from  Asia  Minor.  A  Ger- 
man amateur  (the  Baron  de  Truckless)  has  brought 
together,  in  his  garden  in  Franconia,  sixty-five  spe- 
cies of  it.  Besides  the  raw  fruit,  the  cherry  is  much 
employed  in  confitures,  and  gives  also  three  liquors 
in  much  request,  the  Kirisc -:\.  nwasser  of  Germany, 
the  Marrasquin  of  Venice,  and  a  distilled  but  unfer- 
mented  liquor  of  the  Rhine,  having  nothing  in  it 
spirituous,  and  retaining  only  the  watery  and  aro- 
matic parts  of  the  fruit.  The  cherry-tree  dreads 
cold  or  wet  soils,  nor  does  it  succeed  well  in  those 
which  are  either  hot  or  dry.  Its  outer  skin  differs 
in  its  organization  from  that  of  other  trees ;  the 
fibres  are  longer  and  stronger,  and  sometimes  so 
bind  the  woody  part  as  to  obstruct  its  growth. 
Hence  the  practice  of  making  shallow  and  longitu- 
dinal cuts  through  the  outer  bark;  a  practice,  how- 
ever, which,  like  pruning,  ought  to  be  skilfully  per- 
formed, otherwise  the  wound  becomes  gummy, 
chancrous,  and  incurable.* 

The  peach-tree  is  a  native  of  Persia,  where  it 
grows  without  cultivation.  Its  varieties  are  very 
numerous,  all  of  which  are  much  influenced  by  cli- 
mate and  soil.  In  Europe  it  is  only  in  the  south 
of  France,  in  Italy,  and  in  Spain,  where  you  find 
peaches  that  have  reached  the  perfection  of  which 
this  fruit  is  susceptible  ;  and  in  similar  climates  here 
we  may,  no  doubt,  have  fruit  equally  good.  Our 
own  climate  (that  of  New-York)  does  not  appear  to 
be  favourable  to  its  production.  Our  trees  are  often 
sickly,  and  our  peaches  generally  sour  and  watery, 
and  entirely  destitute  of  that  aroma  which  forms 
the  great  excellence  of  this  fruit.  After  these  gcn- 

Nelis,  Passe  Colmar,  Bezi  Vait,  Beurre  d'Aremburgh,  &c., 
ripening  in  December ;  the  Easter  Beurre,  Beurre  Ranee, 
Chaumohtelle,  &c.,  as  late  winter  and  spring  pears;  and  the 
Cattilac,  Chaptal,  Bezi  d'Hui,  as  good  baking  or  stewing 
pears. — J.  B. 
*  Cut  only  the  outer  or  circular  bark. — J.  B. 


144  AGRICULTURE. 

eral  remarks,  we  proceed  to  what  is  more  particu- 
larly the  object  of  this  chapter. 

It  has  been  said,  and,  \\  e  think,  with  much  good 
sense,  that  "every  farmer  ought  to  raise  his  own 
trees,"  because,  besides  ihe  risk,  inconvenience, 
and  expense  of  bringing  our  plants  from  abroad,  we 
have,  in  pursuing  that  mode  of  supply,  to  encoun- 
ter the  tricks  and  blunders  of  nurserymen,  and  the 
ill  consequences  which  follow  a  want  of  analogy 
between  the  soil  in  which  the  plants  were  raised 
and  that  to  which  they  are  to  be  transferred.  The 
first  step,  therefore,  towards  obtaining  a  good  or- 
chard, is  to  create  a  good  nursery.  The  situation 
most  favourable  for  this  is  a  piece  of  level  ground, 
defended  from  cold  and  violent  winds  either  by 
natural  or  artificial  means,  and  which,  in  composi- 
tion, is  neither  wet  nor  dry,  and  of  only  middling 
fertility.  This  condition  of  the  soil  is  a  circum- 
stance of  much  importance,  and  ought  to  be  rigor- 
ously observed,  because  the  vessels  of  young  trees 
growing  in  rich  soils  take  a  size  proportioned  to 
the  quantity  of  sap  they  receive  and  circulate ;  and 
if  their  situation  be  changed  for  the  worse,  the 
quantity  of  the  sap  being  necessarily  diminished, 
the  vessels  become  rigid  and  unhealthy,  and  unable 
to  carry  to  the  extremity  of  the  branches  the  nour- 
ishment required  by  them.  The  ground,  selected 
on  these  principles,  must  be  securely  fenced,  thor- 
oughly ploughed  and  harrowed,  freed  from  stones 
and  the  roots  of  perennial  plants,  and  then  thrown 
up  into  three  or  four  feet  ridges,  on  which  you  will 
sow  and  cover  your  apple  and  pear  seed,  and  plant 
your  cherry  and  peach  stones.  It  will  now  be  use- 
ful to  roll  the  beds  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the 
soil  and  the  seeds  everywhere  into  contact ;  after 
which  they  may  be  covered  with  clean  straw  for 
the  winter.  In  the  spring  your  young  apple  and 
pear-trees  will  show  themselves,  and  afterward 
your  cherries  and  peaches.  The  treatment  to  all 


ORCHARDS.  145 

will  be  the  same  :  they  must  be  thinned  to  the  dis- 
tance of  fifteen  or  twenty  inches  from  each  other, 
kept  perfectly  free  from  weeds,  and,  if  the  weather 
be  hot  and  dry,  occasionally  watered.  They  re- 
quire only  a  repetition  of  this  process,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  a  little  careful  pruning,  till  they  have  at- 
tained the  height  of  seven  or  eight  feet,  when  they 
are  fit  for  grafting.*  It  is  generally  known  that  by 
this  operation  we  continue  any  given  species  oif 
fruit ;  but  a  fact  with  which  the  public  is  less  ac- 
quainted is,  that  if  the  graft  be  also  grafted,  the 
product  is  improved  both  in  quantity  and  quality ; 
and,  it  is  to  be  presumed,  will  continue  to  improve 
under  every  new  and  similar  operation.  Grafts,  to 
be  well  chosen,  should  be  taken  from  wood  of  the 
present  year,  from  young  and  healthy  races,  and 
accommodated  to  the  future  use  of  the  fruit.  If, 
for  instance,  your  object  be  cider-making,  you  will 
take  your  grafts  from  the  crab  or  the  redstreak  ;f 
and  if  for  barrelling,  from  the  pippin,  the  Spitzen- 
berg,  the  greening,  or  the  Swaur.  As  we  only 
speak  of  grafting  incidentally,  it  will  not  be  expect- 
ed that  we  should  go  into  a  dissertation  upon  that 
art,  nor  to  elucidate  the  many  divisions  and  sub- 
divisions which  technical  men  have  made  of  it.f 
It  is  enough  for  us  to  say,  that,  of  all  these  different 
modes,  the  scion  and  the  slit  is  the  simplest  and  the 

*  Budding  is  generally  preferred  to  grafting  in  nursery  estab 
lishments,  because  it  gives  a  longer  season  for  propagating,  is 
more  expeditiously  performed,  more  certain,  especially  with 
stone  fruit,  and  may  be  performed  upon  stocks  a  year  or  two 
earlier  than  grafting.  Budding  should  be  performed  when  the 
stock  is  from  the  size  of  a  pipestem  to  the  size  of  the  little  fin- 
ger.—J.  B. 

f  The  redstreak  is  no  longer  with  us  in  a  healthy  condition ; 
it  has  degenerated.  The  Harrison,  winesap,  pippin,  and  crab, 
are  our  best  cider  fruits. — J.  B. 

J  The  two  grand  divisions  are  by  approach  and  by  scion.  Their 
varieties  and  sub-varieties,  nearly  a  hundred,  are  known  by 
the  names  of  ancients  and  moderns,  as  Varro,  Virgil,  Columella, 
Malherhes,  Duhamei,  Bosc,  Michaux,  &c.,  &c 


146  AGRICULTURE. 

best.  When  your  grafts  have  acquired  some  inches 
in  length,  it  may  be  well  to  rub  off  all  the  buds 
which  have  pushed  below  them  on  the  stem,  and 
perhaps  a  few  of  those  which  have  appeared  above 
them  ;*  and  if  the  grafts  themselves  put  out  any 
lateral  shoots,  spare  them  till  the  succeeding  year, 
when  you  are  called  to  regraft  such  as  have  failed, 
and  to  furnish  props  to  those  which  are  feeble,  or 
crooked,  or  ill-directed. 

Planting  is  the  next  operation  in  the  process  ;  but, 
as  some  preliminary  measures,  on  which  its  suc- 
cess will  much  depend,  are  yet  untouched,  we  will 
begin  with  these  ;  and, 

1st.  Of  the  soil  chosen  for  your  intended  orchard. 
It  is  generally  admitted  that  fruit-trees  do  well  in  a 
warm,  friable,  moist,  and  deep  soil ;  that  they  suc- 
ceed but  indifferently  in  one  that  is  cold  and  stiff, 
and  that  they  altogether  fail  in  one  either  very  dry 
or  very  wet';  but  a  fact  less  known,  though  not  less 
established,  is,  that  the  subsoil  has  a  powerful  in- 
fluence on  the  health  and  prosperity  of  plants.  If 
this  be  rock,  or  what  is  called  hardpan,  whatever 
be  the  surface,  the  tree  and  its  fruits  are  much  de- 
teriorated ;  nor  will  the  remedy,  sometimes  resort- 
ed to,  of  cutting  off  the  pivot  or  plunging-root,  and 
leaving  the  tree  to  subsist  by  those  which  are  mere- 
ly lateral,  be  sufficient.  It  may  palliate,  but  it  does 
not  cure. 

2d.  Next  to  soil,  exposition  is  most  important.  In 
this  climate  northern  and  western  expositions  are 
bad  ;  because  the  tree  has  least  time  for  vegetation, 
its  juices  are  less  concocted,  and  it  is  itself  most 

*  Many  grafts  are  annually  lost  by  removing  the  upper  buds, 
shoots,  and  limbs.  It  throws  too  much  nourishment  into  the 
graft,  which  dies  of  repletion.  Having  omitted  in  the  text  to 
say  anything  of  the  different  stems  employed  in  grafting,  we  here 
remark,  what  all  amateurs  in  fruit-trees  ought  to  know,  that  sci 
ons,  whether  of  apple  or  pear  trees,  grafted  on  quince  stocks, 
give  fairer  fruit  and  much  sooner  than  if  grafted  on  apple  or 
pear  stocks  ;  but  the  trees  are  short-lived. 


ORCHARDS.  147 

exposed  to  the  action  of  high  winds.  These  re- 
marks will  sufficiently  indicate  why  eastern  and 
southern  expositions  are  favourable,  and  ought  to 
be  preferred.  But  the  rule  these  facts  suggest  can- 
not be  made  absolute,  since  many  persons  occupy 
only  the  northern  and  western  sides  of  hills.  Jn 
these  situations,  therefore,  the  course  most  appro- 
ved by  theory  and  experience  is,  to  plant  only  trees 
which  are  late  in  forming  or  maturing  their  fruit. 

3d.  The  preparation  of  the  soil  is  not  to  be  neg- 
lected, and  any  summer  crop  in  rows  and  well  cul- 
tivated forms  a  good  one.  With  these  remarks  we 
return  to  our  general  head  of  planting. 

The/07-m  in  which  your  trees  stand  is  not  matter 
of  indifference.  The  quincunx  is  recommended  as 
giving  to  them  that  position  which  is  relatively  best ; 
but  the  caize  (straight  lines  intersecting  each  other), 
better  admitting  the  movements  of  the  plough,  is  gen- 
erally preferred.  Whichever  of  the  two  be  adopted, 
the  holes  indicated  in  a  former  part  of  this  section 
must  be  made  accordingly,  and  ought  to  be  six  feet 
wide  and  as  many  long,  and  two  feet  deep.  The 
advantages  of  these  will  abundantly  repay  the  extra 
labour  they  require,  as  we  find  by  M.  Chalumeau's 
experiments  on  peach-trees,  from  which  we  make 
the  following  extract :  "  Four  peach-trees,  resem- 
bling each  other,  as  to  size  and  vigour  of  growth,  as 
much  as  possible,  were  planted:  No.  1  in  a  hole 
three  feet  square  ;  No.  2  in  a  hole  two  feet  square  ; 
and  Nos.  3  and  4  in  holes  eighteen  inches  square. 
The  soil  and  exposition  similar.  No.  1  has  every 
year  given  the  most  abundant  crops,  and  the  rela- 
tive sizes  of  the  trees  now  are  as  follows  :  the  stem 
of  No.  1,  18  feet  high  and  eight  inches  in  circum- 
ference :  that  of  No.  2,  nine  feet  high  and  five  and  a 
half  inches  in  circumference ;  No.  3,  six  feet  high, 
and  three  inches  eight  lines  in  circumference ;  and 
No.  4,  fiye  and  a  half  feet  high,  and  three  inches  in 
circumference."  Here  is  a  difference  between  the 
12 


148  AGRICULTURE. 

largest  and  smallest  of  five  inches  in  circumference 
and  12  1-2  feet  in  height;  a  most  decisive  proof  of 
the  advantages  of  trenching.* 

When  the  holes  are  thus  prepared,  and  at  a  dis- 
tance not  less  than  30  feet  from  each  other,  and  a 
portion  of  the  soil,  is  mixed  with  marl,  the  mud  of 
ponds,  or  bog-earth,  returned  to  them,  you  may  be- 
gin to  take  up  your  young  trees  from  the  nursery ; 
and,  in  doing  this,  you  must  be  careful  not  to  wound 
or  otherwise  injure  their  roots  or  their  bark ;  nor 
must  they  suffer  any  topping  or  pruning.  Three 
hands  are  necessary  to  planting ;  one  to  place  and 
range  the  trees,  and  the  others  to  fill  in  the  remain- 
ing part  of  the  earth,  mixed  as  above  mentioned. 
It  now  only  remains  to  fix  short  poles  (technically 
called  tutors)  near  them,  to  which  they  may  be  tied, 
and  by  means  of  which  their  true  vertical  position 
may  be  preserved. 

The  year  after  planting,  and  in  the  month  of  Feb- 
ruary^ when  there  is  no  circulation  of  sap,  you  will 
do  well  to  begin  to  give  to  the  heads  of  your  young  ' 
trees  that  form  which  you  wish  them  ultimately  to 
take.  The  more  circular  you  make  them,  the  better, 
always  taking  care  to  lop  off  those  branches  which 
do  already,  or  may  hereafter,  cross  others  having  a 
proper  direction.  This  proper  direction  will  be  gen- 
erally horizontal,  but  with  a  slight  curve  ;  an  opin- 
ion requiring,  perhaps,  a  little  explanation.  All 
straight  branches  produce  what  are  usually  termed 
gourmands,  or  gluttons,  giving  little  if  any  fruit 
themselves,  and  exceedingly  exhausting  the  tree. 
Curved  branches,  on  the  other  hand,  rarely  produce 
gourmands  ;  and,  when  the  season  is  favourable,  give 
much  fruit.  The  observation  of  these  facts,  made 

*  The  apple,  pear,  and  cherry,  occupying  more  room  than  the 
peach,  require  proportionate  trenches. 

t  The  last  of  June,  after  the  tree  has  made  its  first  growth 
and  is  charged  with  elaborated  sap,  is  recommended  as  the  best 
lime  for  performing  this  operation. — J.  B. 


ORCHARDS.  149 

long  since,  and  probably  growing  out  of  the  man- 
agement of  espaliers,  first  suggested  the  practice  of 
bending  straight  branches  by  artificial  means.  The 
effect  entirely  justified  the  theory ;  these  straight  and 
barren  branches,  bent  into  nearly  half  a  circle,* 
changed  their  character  with  their  shape,  and  be- 
came very  productive.  But  there  is  a  time  for  this 
as  for  all  other  things,  and,  unless  the  experiment  be 
began  about  the  first  of  July  and  continued  to  Sep- 
tember, it  will  fail,  because  it  is  only  within  that 
period  that  fruit  buds  are  formed. f 

As  your  trees  advance  in  age,  they  will  require 
vruning.  Suckers  must  be  removed,  and  dead  and 
dying  limbs  taken  off.  For  this  purpose  a  hand- 
saw, a  chissel,  a  mallet,  and  a  gardener's  knife,  are 
the  instruments  to  be  used  :  all  others  must  be  pro- 
scribed, and  particularly  the  axe,  which,  in  the  hands 
of  folly  and  ignorance,  has  been  so  mischievous  to 
fruit-trees.  Wounds,  if  large,  should  always  be 
covered  from  drying  winds,  from  moisture,  and  even 
from  air.  In  gummy  trees,  as  the  peach  or  the  cher- 
ry, this  precaution  is  indispensable,  and  the  neglect 
of  it  a  disgrace,  since  the  best  covering  is  that  com- 
posed of  cow-dung  and  clay  ;  materials  costing  no- 
thing, and  always  at  hand. 

On  this  subject  we  have  but  one  other  rule  to 
give,  and  that  is,  to  open  the  ground  about  the  roots 
of  your  trees  in  the  fall,  to  the  influences  of  the  air, 
rain,  and  frost.  The  last  of  these,  besides  promo- 
ting vegetation,  destroys  many  insects  in  the  chrys- 
alis state,  which,  if  left  undisturbed,  would  in  the 
spring  be  very  injurious.  Another  part  of  the  same 
rule  is  to  cover  with  straw,  in  the  spring,  the  ground 
you  make  bare  in  the  fall ;  the  object  of  which  is  to 
prevent  evaporation  by  intercepting  the  rays  of  the 

*  M ore  than  half  a  circle  will  obstruct  the  circulation  of  sap 
and  dostroy  the  limb. 

t  The  circulation  of  the  sap  is  then  slowest.  See  Art.  Cour 
bure,  Nouveau  Cours  d'Agriculture,  vol.  iv. 


150  GARDENING. 

sun,  and  thus  securing  to  the  roots  the  moisture  ne- 
cessary to  their  welfare. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE    KITCHEN    GARDEN. 

THE  first  page  of  history  informs  us  that,  imme- 
diately after  the  creation,  man  was  placed  in  a  gar- 
den, "  to  dress  and  to  keep  it."  Nor  will  the  wis- 
dom of  this  designation  be  doubted  by  those  who 
duly  consider  the  effects,  moral  and  physical,  of  the 
occupation  it  enjoins.  "  Emollit  mores,  nee  sinet 
esse  feros,"  is  an  observation  of  great  antiquity  and 
acknowledged  truth ;  to  which  might  be  added  oth- 
ers of  equal  authority  and  importance,  viz.  :  that  it 
expands  the  mind,  strengthens  the  body,  tranquil- 
lizes the  spirit,*  and  begets  habits  of  order,  dili- 
gence, temperance,  economy,  and  observation. f 

Thus   recommended   (apart  from   its   pecuniary 

*  Lord  Bacon  calls  it  "  the  purest  of  human  pleasures,  the 
greatest  refreshment  to  the  spirits  of  man,  without  which  build- 
ings and  palaces  are  but  gross  handiworks." 

•\  Of  those  among  the  ancients  who  may  be  considered  as 
authorities,  Cicero  is  perhaps  alone  in  regarding  the  retirement 
of  rural  life  as  tending  rather  to  relax  than  to  invigorate  the 
mental  faculties. — De  Oral.,  i.,  2.  Pliny,  on  the  other  hand,  re 
marks,  "  Experieris  non  Dianam  magis  montibus,  quam  M^ns; 
vam  inerrare."  We  need  scarcely  quote  the  well-known  decis- 
ions of  Horace  and  Virgil.  "  Scriptorum  chorus  omn:s  axnat 
nemus,  et  fugit  urbes."  "  Rura  mihi  et  regni  placeant,"  &c. 
The  controversy,  after  all,  is  one  of  words ;  for  besides  that 
there  may  have  been  some  peculiarity  of  mind  in  Cicero,  caiimg 
for  an  uncommon  kind  or  degree  of  stimulus,  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  his  great  and  distinguishing  talent  could  only 
receive  development  and  exercise  from  the  presence  and  agita 
tions  of  a  crowd. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  151 

profits),  it  will  not  be  thought  extraordinary  that 
gardening,  considered  both  as  a  science  and  an  art 
should  have  engaged  the  attention  of  able  and  learn- 
ed men,  who,  at  different  times  and  in  various  lan- 
guages, have  written  upon  it.  To  collect  and 
methodize  their  remarks  and  experiments,  to  illus- 
trate their  different  doctrines,  and  to  adapt  the  whole 
to  our  own  climate,  soil,  and  social  condition,  form 
the  leading  objects  of  the  present  work. 

Another  important,  though  a  secondary  object,  is 
to  briqg  what  is  known  and  necessary  on  so  copious 
a  subject  into  the  smallest  compass,  persuaded,  as 
we  are,  that  the  highest  service  that  can  now  be 
rendered  to  science  is  to  shorten  and  illustrate  its 
processes,  and  thus  render  attainable  by  many  what 
otherwise  would  be  known  only  to  few. 

Gardens  are  technically  classed  under  five  heads : 
the  Kitchen  Garden,  the  Fruit  Garden,  the  Flower 
Garden,  the  Botanic  Garden,  and  the  Landscape, 
commonly,  but  improperly,  called  the  English  Gar- 
den. These  have  many  principles  in  common,  but 
some  which  are  peculiar,  and  they  consequently 
call  for  different  kinds  of  culture,  and  different  sorts 
and  degrees  of  knowledge  in  the  cultivator.  We 
shall  treat  here  only  of  the  two  first  named ;  and 
begin  with  the  Kitchen  Garden. 

This  is  the  description  of  garden  most  important 
to  man,  because  employed  in  the  production  of  ar- 
ticles of  the  first  necessity,  and  common  to  every 
class  of  society.  Several  conditions  are,  however, 
necessary  to  enable  it  to  fulfil  this  intention.  Such 
are,  sufficient  fences,  a  good  soil,  a  favourable  ex- 
position, and  abundant  water.  The  first,  to  be  suffi- 
cient, ought  to  have  the  property  not  only  of  ex- 
cluding the  depredations  of  man  and  beast,  but  that 
also  of  shutting  out  vermin,  and  even  some  of  the 
tribes  of  larger  insects.  The  second  should  be 
deep,  rich,  friable,  and  moist  (not  wet),  because  this 
description  of  soil  is  best  adapted  to  the  mass  of 


152  G4ADENING. 

garden  vegetables,  and  not  positively  unfriendly  to 
any.  The  third  should  have  an  inclination  to  the 
south  and  east,  as  this  exposure  will  best  secure 
that  temperature  both  of  the  earth  and  of  the  air 
which  is  most  favourable  to  vegetation  ;  and  of  the 
fourth  we  need  only  remark,  that  it  is  emphatically 
called  the  life  of  plants.* 

The  size  and  shape  of  this  species  of  garden  are 
not  indifferent,  but  admit  no  positive  rules  for  their 
regulation,  because  depending  on  circumstances 
rarely  alike  in  two  cases ;  the  nature  of  the  ground, 
and  the  wants  or  ability  of  the  occupier.  On  these 
heads,  therefore,  we  only  say  that  a  parallelogram 
and  a  square  are  the  forms  most  approved,  because 
most  susceptible  of  a  cheap,  and  easy,  and  regular 
arrangement  into  beds ;  and  that  two  acres\  devoted 
to  the  culture  of  table  vegetables  will  furnish  an 
abundant  supply  for  even  a  large  family. 

"With  these  few  preliminary  remarks,  we  proceed 
to  what  is  more  peculiarly  the  object  of  this  branch 
of  our  work,  viz.,  an  enumeration  of  the  articles 
selected  for  garden  culture,  and  the  means  best  cal- 
culated for  bringing  them  to  that  degree  of  perfec- 
tion of  which  they  may  be  respectively  susceptible. 

THE  ARTICHOKE  (Cynara  Scolymus).  The  proto- 
type of  this  race  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
and  rarely  to  be  found  in  northern  climates,  except- 
ing in  botanical  collections  ;  the  varieties  produced 
by  culture  are  much  preferable  to  the  parent  plant.J 

*  Water  impregnated  with  minerals  is  not  merely  useless, 
but  injurious  to  vegetation.  Such  is  often  the  water  found  in 
wells,  and  sometimes  in  rivulets.  River  and  rain  water  may 
always  be  safely  employed,  as  well  from  their  constituent  parts 
as  from  their  temperature.  Every  garden  should  have  a  pond  to 
receive  and  hold  n  in  water. 

t  The  author,  doubtless,  would  include  potatoes,  and  esculent 
garden  vegetables  of  every  kind  in  this  estimate. 

J  Miller  considers  the  globe  artichoke,  which  he  calls  the 
Cynara  Hortensis,  as  a  distinct  species  from  the  Cynara  Scoly- 
mus, and  rests  his  opinion  on  the  difference  between  the  two 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  153 

These  varieties  are  numerous,  and  take  their  dis- 
tinctive names  from  their  colour  :  as  the  green,  the 
red,  the  violet,  and  the  white.  The  first  of  these 
(the  green)  is  the  best,  as  well  on  account  of  its 
larger  size,  as  its  better  flavour  and  greater  ability 
to  resist  cold  and  wet  vwjather;  the  constant  and 
most  formidable  enemy  onhe  whole  family. 

This  plant  is  propagated  in  two  ways,  by  seed  and 
by  suckers  ;  by  the  former  when1  it  is  desired  to  ob- 
tain new  races,  and  by  the  latter  when  we  wish  to 
continue  old  ones.  The  first  method  is  occasionally 
practised  by  amateurs,  and  is  that  by  which  the 
plant  may  be  soonest  naturalized,  and  made  to  attain 
its  highest  perfection.  The  second  is  preferred  by 
practical  men  seeking  immediate  profit,  and  risking 
as  little  as  possible  on  experiments.* 

If  the  first  method  be  adopted,  select  sound  and 
fresh  seeds,  and,  in  the  month  of  February,  sow 
them  in  pots  filled  with  rich  and  mellow  earth,  and 
plunged  in  a  hotbed.  Each  pot  may  receive  three 
seeds.  The  young  plants  will  soon  show  them- 
selves, and,  by  watering  and  ventilating  them  at 
proper  times  and  in  a  moderate  degree,  will  be  fit 
for  transplanting  in  April.  If  the  second  method  be 
preferred,  after  having  carefully  uncovered  and 
cleaned  the  stems  of  the  mother  plants,  take  from 
them,  with  the  hand,  as  many  sprouts  or  suckers 
as  may  be  wanted,  remembering  that  those  near- 
est the  heart  are  the  best ;  and  taking  care  also  to 
crop  the  sprouts  close  to  the  stem,  and  always  be- 
low what  gardeners  call  the  nut,  and  without  chafing 
or  otherwise  injuring  the  fibres  which  surround  this, 
and  which  are  destined  to  become  the  roots  of  the 
future  artichoke. 

Such  are  the-  two  modes  of  obtaining  plants,  to 

in  relation  to  bulk  and  to  shape.     The  later,  and,  we  think,  the 
better  opinion  is,  that  this  difference  is  the  effect  only  of  culture. 
*  The  average  lo&s  of  plants  from  the  seed-bed  is  one  half, 
that  from  suckers  only  one  tenth. — Cours  d'Ag. 


154  GARDENING. 

which  we  now  add  the  subsequent  management 
common  to  both. 

In  hot  and  dry  climates,  the  soil  best  adapted  to 
the  artichoke  is  that  which  is  most  retentive  of 
moisture,  and  vice  versa.  In  our  own  particular 
climate,  which  may  be^fegarded  as  a  medium  be- 
tween the  two  extremes,  a  soil  neither  very  wet  nor 
very  dry  is  to  be  preferred.  A  portion  of  this,  of 
such  extent  as  the  required  number  of  plants  may 
render  necessary,  which  has  been  previously  and 
thoroughly  worked  and  manured,  should  be  raked 
smooth,  and  so  scored,  both  lengthwise  and  across, 
as  to  form  a  number  of  beds  or  squares  of  three  feet 
— in  the  centre  of  each  of  which  a  hole  is  to  be  dib- 
bled and  an  artichoke  placed — remembering,  how- 
ever, before  you  do  so  (if  the  plants  are  seedlings), 
to  pinch  off  the  tap  or  pivot  root,*  and  to  leave 
as  much  of  the  native  soil  as  the  lateral  roots  will 
hold  together,  and  (whether  seedlings  or  suckers) 
to  press  with  your  hand  or  your  dibbler  the  earth 
into  close  contact  with  the  buried  part  of  the  plant, 
leaving  only  the  heart  uncovered.  When  this  is 
done,  sow  rows  of  lettuce  seed  in  the  intervals  be- 
tween the  artichokes  ;  which,  besides  giving  an  ad- 
ditional and  useful  article  to  your  crop,  will  best 
protect  from  the  ravages  of  the  grub  that  which  is 
your  primary  object ;  for  many  observations  concur 
in  showing  that,  where  the  grub  has  the  power  of 

*  The  facts  on  which  this  theory  rests  are  two.  1st.  That  it 
is  the  peculiar  office  of  the  pivot  to  give  sustenance  to  the  stem 
and  leaves,  and  of  the  lateral  roots  to  supply  the  suckers  and 
heads,  which  are  the  things  we  want.  Now  if  the  pivot  be  re- 
moved, the  lateral  roots  acquire  an  increased  vigour,  and  the 
head  is  made  better  in  proportion.  "  M.  Feburier,  of  Rennes, 
planted  two  rows  of  artichokes,  the  one  with  pivot  roots,  the 
other  deprived  of  them.  The  former  threw  out  leaves  so  long 
and  numerous,  that  it  became  necessary  to  thin  them ;  but  their 
fruit  was  neither  abundant  nor  fine,  while  the  latter  grew  well, 
and  gave  fruit  much  better  and  earlier  than  the  other." — Cou  a 
d  Agri.,  art.  Artichoke. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  155 

choosing,  it  never  fails  to  prefer  the  lettuce  to  the 
artichoke. 

The  processes  of  watering  and  hoeing  are  next  in 
order  of  time,  and  are  either  multiplied,  or  decreas- 
ed, or  discontinued,  according  to  circumstances. 
The  rules  which  regulate  these  labours  are  two :  if 
the  weather  be  dry,  and  you  wish  to  hasten  the  ma- 
turity of  the  fruit,  you  must  hoe  often  and  water 
every  other  day.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  weather 
be  wet,  and  you  have  other  beds  to  draw  from  for 
the  supply  of  the  current  year,  hoe  seldom  and  do 
not  water  at  all ;  and  by  this  management  you  may 
either  quicken  or  retard  the  progress  of  the  plant. 

To  have  large  artichokes,  you  must  leave  only  one 
sprout  to  a  stem ;  and  in  this  case,  the  taking  off  the 
surplus  suckers  should  not  be  delayed  beyond  the 
first  week  in  July.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  you  dis- 
regard the  size  of  the  fruit,  you  may  leave  the  plant 
to  regulate  its  own  products  as  to  number.  The 
maturity  of  the  fruit  Syndicated  by  the  opening  of 
the  scales,  and  we  inflR  be  careful  to  take  it  before 
the  flower  begins  to  show  itself;  and  in  doing  this, 
to  cut  it  close  to  the  ground,  leaving  no  stump  to 
impoverish  the  root.  It  is  a  practice  not  uncom- 
mon to  dig  and  loosen  the  earth  around  the  roots 
in  the  fall  of  the  year,  and  in  dry  and  warm  winter 
climates  the  practice  is  not  a  bad  one ;  but  in  ours, 
where  frosts  are  severe  and  snows  frequent,  it  would 
be  highly  injudicious,  as  earth  recently  dug  absorbs 
and  retains  moisture  more,  and,  consequently,  freezes 
sooner  and  deeper,  than  that  which  has  not  been 
worked  for  some  months  preceding ;  a  remark 
which,  by-the-way,  calls  us  to  the  consideration  of 
the  best  means  of  preserving  the  outstanding  plants 
during  the  winter. 

Various  means  have  been  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose. That  which  is  most  commonly  used  is,  after 
stripping  off  the  dead  or  decaying  leaves,  and  trim- 
ming down  the-soun  1  ones  to  three  or  four  inches 


156  GARDENING. 

to  open  trenches  around  the  plant,  and  to  draw  up 
about  it  the  earth  furnished  by  these.  This  is  again 
covered  with  long  dung  or  stable  litter,  so  as  entire- 
ly to  exclude  rain,  and  snow,  and  frost.  But,  in  ma- 
King  these  provisions  against  cold  and  wet  weather, 
we  must  not  forget  that  it  is  possible  to  be  careful 
over-much;  for  if  the  mounds  of  earth  and  litter  be 
large  and  close,  we  expose  our  plants  to  suffocation 
from  want  of  air ;  to  exhaustion  from  a  continued 
vegetation,  and  to  scorching  from  the  fermentation 
of  the  covering  matter,  which,  if  the  weather  be  wet 
and  but  occasionally  warm,  seldom  fails  to  occur. 

To  obviate  these  difficulties,  it  has  been  proposed 
that  the  mounds  be  gradually  formed ;  that  the  first 
covering  be  merely  a  wrapping  of  long  dung,  and 
that  the  additions  made  to  it  be  conformed  to  the 
weather,  leaving  openings  in  all  cases  on  its  south- 
ern side  for  the  purposes  of  ventilation,  and  in  no 
case  permitting  the  covering  to  exceed  two  feet  in 
thickness.*  But  even  this  mode  of  treatment  is  not 
free  from  objection  ;  for,  iir^fcthe  direct  application 
of  the  dung  to  the  plant  will  always  alter  its  flavour, 
and  very-  much  degrade  it ;  and  again,  the  capri- 
ciousness  of  the  weather  does  not  generally  give 
either  warning  of  its  changes,  or  time  to  accommo- 
date ourselves  to  them :  they  often  take  place  in 
the  night,  and  often  (whether  in  the  night  or  in  the 
day)  under  circumstances  which  prevent  us  from 
giving  to  the  plant  the  additional  covering  it  may 
require.  Two  other  methods,  therefore,  not  dis- 
similar in  themselves,  have  been  suggested ;  the 
one,  to  employ  hollow  cylinders  of  earthenware, 
covered  with  a  tile  or  piece  of  slate,  and  of  capa- 
city sufficient  to  embrace  the  plant;  the  other,  to 
form  caps  of  straw  (such  as  are  used  for  lodging 
bees),  and  having  a  moveable  top  of  the  same  ma- 

*  This  suggestion  is  M.  Thouin's  ;  the  writer  of  the  excel- 
lent article  on  the  artichoke,  to  be  found  in  the  Encyclopedia 
Methodique. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  157 

terial.*  To  the  last  method  we  see  no  room  for  ob- 
jection :  in  application  it  is  easy,  requiring  no  skill 
and  little  labour,  while  the  material  and  workman- 
ship are  both  cheap  and  durable,  and  their  property 
of  excluding  rain,  snow,  and  frost,  not  to  be  doubted. 
Every  gardener  who  understands  his  trade  will 
take  care  to  set  apart  a  few  of  the  finest  heads  of 
his  own  crop  for  seed ;  but  as  the  stock  is  upright, 
and  the  head  so  formed  as  to  receive  and  hold  wa- 
ter, it  often  happens  that  the  seeds  rot.  To  prevent 
this,  the  stems  of  the  plants  so  set  apart  should  be 
tied  to  stakes  driven  into  the  ground  near  them,  and 
gradually  bent,  so  as  to  give  to  the  heads  that  de- 
gree of  declination  that  will  be  sufficient  to  carry 
off  the  water  that  may  fall  upon  them. 

When  well  managed,  the  artichoke  will  give  fruit 
four  or  five  years  in  succession;  but, to  avoid  acci- 
dents, new  plantations  should  be  made  every  year. 
In  some  parts  of  Europe,  as  in  France  and  Italy, 
the  taste  for  this  vegetable  is  excessive,  and  much 
beyond  what  it  merits  on  the  score  either  of  nutri- 
tiousness  or  flavour.  Of  this  partiality  the  garden- 
ers avail  themselves,  and  by  employing  the  varie- 
ties which  ripen  soonest  and  latest,  contrive  to  keep 
the  plant  in  the  market  (in  its  natural  state)  seven 
or  eight  months  of  the  twelve ;  and  means  are  then 
employed  to  prolong  its  use,  by  converting  it  into  a 
comfit.  In  this  country  the  taste  for  it  is  neither 
common  nor  great ;  and  as  the  culture  is  expensive 
and  not  always  successful,  we  have  doubts  whether, 
to  gardeners  who  cultivate  for  the  market,  it  is  de- 
serving of  much  attention. 

ASPARAGUS  (Maratimus  Officinalis).  Of  this  plant 
there  are  ten  species,  one  of  which  only  is  an  ob- 
ject of  garden  culture,  and  to  this  botanists  have 
given  the  name  prefixed  to  this  article. 

*  The  earthen  cylinders  have  been  proposed  by  M.  Bosc,  of 
the  French  Institute,  and  the  straw  caps  by  M.  Feburier,  of 
Rennes. 


158  GARDENING. 

Vegetables  which  have  been  long  cultivated  have 
in  general  many  varieties ;  but  to  this  law  the  as 
paragus  appears  to  be  an  exception,  having,  as  we 
believe,  but  two,  and  these  differing  from  each  other 
only  in  volume.  They  are  found  growing  sponta- 
neously in  high  northern  latitudes,  near  the  mouths 
of  great  rivers,  where  the  soil  is  annually  covered 
with  a  new  coat  of  alluvial  matter.  The  natural 
life  of  an  individual  plant  does  not  exceed  five  years  ; 
but,  left  undisturbed  in  its  native  bed,  it,  rises  in  the 
spring,  ripens  its  seeds  in  the  summer,  and  in  au- 
tumn sheds  them  on  the  soft  and  rich  surface  which 
the  spring  floods  have  prepared  for  them  :  and  in 
this  way  continues  to  propagate  the  race  from  one 
century  to  another. 

These  facts  could  not  have  been  either  long  ob- 
served or  much  considered,  without  suggesting  the 
kind  of  treatment  which  would  be  most  proper  for 
the  plant  when  transferred  to  an  artificial  bed ;  yet 
the  modes  indicated  for  this  purpose  have  been  very 
different,  and,  like  other  things  of  even  less  conse- 
quence, have  given  rise  to  much  and  warm  discus- 
sion. Of  these  disputed  points  the  principal  are, 
whether  sowing  or  planting  gives  the  most  profit; 
whether  plants  of  one,  of  two,  or  of  three  years 
are  to  be  preferred ;  whether  the  seedbed  should 
be  as  rich,  or  less  so  than  the  plantation  ;  and,  last- 
ly, whether  this  (the  plantation)  should  be  formed 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  its  natural  state,  or 
on  an  excavation  filled  up  with  new  and  better  ma- 
terials. 

The  first  of  these  questions  appears  to  us  to  turn 
principally  on  convenience.  If  we  can  postpone  the 
use  of  the  plant  for  a  year  or  two,  sowing  is  to  be 
preferred;  because  the  crop  it  gives  (other  things 
being  equal),  though  later  in  coming,  is  more  abun- 
dant, of  better  quality,  and  of  longer  duration ;  but 
if  our  supply  must  be  prompt,  planting  is  best,  for 
by  this  mode  we  no  doubt  soonest  obtain  the  fruit 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  159 

The  same  or  similar  considerations  influence  the 
second  question ;  but  there  are  others  which  affect, 
and  which  may  be  thought  sufficient  to  decide  it. 
Roots  of  three  years  will  not  only  give  fruit  sooner 
than  those  of  one  or  of  two  years,  but  their  fibres 
being  harder  and  roots  more  numerous,  are  better 
able  to  sustain  the  violence  inseparable  from  trans- 
plantation, and  the  other  accidents  (such  as  heating 
and  chafing)  which  often  accompany  it,  particularly 
if  the  roots  be  brought  from  a  distance. 

With  regard  to  the  third  question  we  would  only 
remark,  that  the  translation  of  seedlings  from  the 
nursery  to  the  plantation  always  forms  a  crisis  in 
their  health  and  character,  during  which  they  are 
best  supported  by  giving  to  them  an  increased  stimu- 
lus or  nutrition.  But  if  the  seedbed  be  as  rich  as 
that  of  the  plantation,  the  transferred  plant  has  no 
support  of  this  kind ;  and  hence  it  is  that,  though  it 
may  not  perish,  it  will  not  thrive. 

The  last  question  may  be  considered  as  one  alto- 
gether of  means  or  ability  in  the  cultivator ;  and  as 
among  our  readers  there  may  be  both  poor  and 
rich,  we  will  give  a  sketch  of  both  methods,  the 
saving  plan,  and  that  which,  though  more  expensive, 
is  decidedly  better. 

First  Method. — Manure  the  square  (allotted  for 
asparagus)  largely,  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  with  well- 
rotted  dung.  Trench  it  to  the  depth  of  twenty  or 
thirty  inches,  and  leave  it  in  a  rough  state  during 
the  winter.  As  early  as  possible  in  the  spring,  cov- 
er it  with  two  or  three  inches  of  manure,  and  dig  it 
to  the  depth  of  ten  or  twelve  inches,  taking  care 
to  mix  the  earth  and  the  dung  intimately  together. 
The  square  being  now  dug  and  manured,  level  and 
smooth  its  surface,  divide  it  into  beds  of  four  feet, 
drill  these  lengthwise  with  the  spade  or  the  hoe, 
and  in  the  drills  (which  may  be  a  foot  apart)  sow 
your  seeds  sparsely,  or  plant  your  roots,  as  the  case 
may  be,  at  the  distance  from  each  other  (in  the 


160  GARDENING. 

rows)  of  fourteen  inches.  If  you  sow,  cover  the 
seed  with  an  inch  of  good  soil ;  and  if  you  plant, 
cover  the  roots  to  the  depth  of  three  inches  with  a 
similar  soil.  No  other  crop  should  be  sown  in  these 
beds,  and  weeds  should  be  carefully  taken  out  by 
the  hand  from  time  to  time.  On  the  approach  of 
winter,  mow  off  the  young  asparagus,  and  cover  the 
bed  with  stable  litter.  In  the  spring,  rake  off  this 
covering,  and  keep  the  beds  clean  and  loose  during 
the  summer.  Continue  the  same  process  till  the 
third  year,  when  you  may  begin  (but  sparingly)  to 
cut  the  plants  for  table  use.  Formed  and  managed 
in  this  way,  and  manured  every  third  year  after- 
ward, an  asparagus-bed  will  last  ten  or  twelve 
years.* 

Second  Method. — In  the  summer  or  autumn  pre- 
ceding your  sowing  or  planting,  divide  the  square 
intended  for  asparagus  into  four  feet  beds,  marking 
the  angles  by  stakes,  and  leaving  alleys  between 
the  beds  of  1  1-2  or  2  feet.  Excavate  the  beds  to 
the  depth  of  twenty-six  inches,  and  if  you  find  the 
bottom  cold,  and  clayey,  and  retentive  of  moisture, 
sink  it  half  a  foot  deeper.  Lay  on  this  six  inches 
of  coarse  gravel,  or  stones,  or  both,  and  on  these 
place  a  layer  of  equal  depth  of  tanner's  bark  or 
chips,  brushwood,  weeds,  horns,  hoofs,  or  any  other 
slowly-decomposing  matter,  vegetable  or  animal. 
Over  this  spread  another  layer,  composed  of  cow 
and  horse  dung  mixed,  to  the  depth  of  twelve  inch- 
es, and  on  the  top  of  all  replace  the  surface  soil  )*ou 
have  thrown  out,  adding  to  it  as  much  well-rotted 
dung  as  will  entirely  fill  up  the  excavation.  In  this 
way  you  proceed  to  form  the  remaining  beds ;  and, 
when  all  are  finished,  level  and  rake  them,  and  re- 
move the  poor  soil  thrown  out  in  trenching.  As 
early  in  the  spring  as  the  temperature  of  the  weather 
and  the  state  of  the  ground  will  permit,  dig  the  beds 

*  American  Gardener. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  161 

ten  or  twelve  inches  deep,  and  work  into  them  as 
much  well-rotted  dung  as  will  bring  them  to  the 
level  of  the  alleys  (for  they  will  have  sunk  consid- 
erably) ;  after  which,  rake  and  smooth  them,  and 
trace  out  with  the  spade  or  the  hoe  four  small 
trenches  on  each,  not  more  than  one  inch  deep ; 
and  in  these  sow  fresh,  and  large,  and  well-ripened 
seed,  and  so  sparsely,  that,  when  the  plants  rise, 
they  will  not  be  found  nearer  together  (in  the  rows) 
than  fourteen  inches.  Draw  an  inch  of  mould  over 
the  seeds,  and  then  ro'l  or  tread  the  rows,  so  as 
to  press  the  seed  and  the  earth  everywhere  into 
contact. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  you  prefer  planting,  select 
roots  of  one,  of  two,  or  of  three  years,  remember- 
ing that  "  the  white  are  only  to  be  employed,  and 
that  those  of  a  violet  or  livid  colour  are  always 
hollow  and  unproductive."*  In  putting  these  down, 
your  trenches  must  be  deep  enough  to  receive  the 
roots  and  a  covering  of  three  inches.  The  crowns 
of  these  roots  must  be  placed  upright,  and  the  pattes 
[or  fingers],  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  spread 
and  directed  downward ;  for  on  their  taking  this 
direction  (to  the  food  provided  for  them)  the  pros- 
perity of  the  plantation  will  principally  depend.  It 
now  only  remains  to  cover  them,  and  that  should 
be  done  with  three  inches  of  good  fresh  mould.  In 
winter  the  plants  may  be  left  to  themselves,  as 
many  experiments  show  that,  in  beds  constructed 
in  the  way  and  of  the  materials  we  have  described, 
they  are  never  injured  by  frost ;  and  farther,  that,  if 
the  surfaces  of  such  beds  be  entirely  exposed  to  its 

*  Duchesne,  Prof.  Nat.  History,  Versailles.  Another  remark 
of  this  author  is,  that  the  male  plants  are  much  more  profitable 
than  the  female,  and  that,  therefore,  whether  we  sow  or  plant, 
the  number  of  seeds  in  the  one  case,  and  of  roots  in  the  other, 
should  be  double  the  number  usually  employed  ;  and  that,  at  the 
time  of  flowering,  when  the  sexes  can  be  readily  discriminattd, 
the  females  should  be  destroyed. 


162  GARDENING. 

action,  the  crop  will  be  less  liable  to  the  attacks  of 
insects  the  ensuing  spring. 

In  the  month  of  March  or  April  (during  the  whole 
existence  of  the  plant)  the  beds  must  be  carefully- 
forked  and  dressed,  and  kept  clear  of  weeds.*  Oc- 
casional waterings,  are  necessary  till  the  third  or 
fourth  year,  when  the  plants  will  be  sufficiently  es- 
tablished to  do  without  them  ;  but  it  is  at  this  epoch, 
and  in  some  degree  as  a  substitute  for  watering,  that 
you  must  cover  your  beds  with  three  inches  of  ad- 
ditional earth. 

With  regard  to  the  cutting  of  asparagus,  it  may 
not  be  unnecessary  to  remark,  that  this  should  not 
be  done  till  the  third  year,  and  then  but  sparingly 
and  late  in  the  season ;  and  that  it  should  be  discon- 
tinued the  moment  you  find  the  buds  dwindling  in 
size  and  diminishing  in  number. 

It  will  be  readily  perceived,  that  the  modes  of 
cultivation  we  have  indicated  are  those  only  which 
furnish  the  article  in  its  natural  season  ;  but  as  win- 
ter asparagus,  like  winter  roses,  takes  an  increased 
value  from  its  rarity,  it  remains  to  say  something  of 
the  method  technically  called  forcing.  The  first  step 
in  this  process  is  to  procure  a  supply  of  three-year 
old  plants  (for  none  else  are  fit  for  the  purpose), 
and  the  next  to  have  a  hotbed  of  proper  tempera- 
ture ready  to  receive  them.  You  now  trench  its 
surface  lengthwise,  and  by  drawing  the  earth  to  the 
side  of  each  trench,  you  form  ridges,  against  which 
you  set  the  roots,  at  the  distance  of  two  inches  apart, 
the  buds  upright,  and  the  fingers  spread  as  directed 
in  method  second.  They  are  then  to  be  covered 

*  It  has  been  lately  asserted,  and  with  sufficient  confidence, 
that  a  pickle  of  salt  and  water,  of  the  ordinary  strength  for  pre- 
serving meat,  may  be  very  usefully  applied  to  asparagus  beds  in 
the  spring.  The  effects  ascribed  to  it  ar-e  its  stimulating  power 
upon  the  crop,  and  its  tendency  to  destroy  the  seeds  of  weeds 
and  of  insects  lying  near  the  surface.  Experiments  on  this 
subject  should  be  multipaed,  and  with  pickles  differing  in  strength 
»«n  onantity. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN  163 

with  mould,  and  the  glasses  to  be  replaced  on  the 
frames,  and,  when  the  buds  begin  to  show  them- 
selves, they  must  have  a  second  and  similar  cover- 
ing. 

The  ventilation  first  of  the  bed,  and  subsequently 
of  the  plants,  ha.>  distinct  rules,  requiring  the  strict- 
est observance.  With  regard  to  the  former,  the  gen- 
eral direction  is,  to  give  to  the  bed  as  much  air  as 
possible,  without  permitting  the  earth  to  be  cither 
frozen  or  chilled  ;  with  regard  to  the  latter,  so  soon 
as  the  buds  show  themselves  through  the  second 
covering  of  mould,  ventilate  every  day,  and  through- 
out the  day  if  the  weather  be  good;  but  during  the 
night,  whatever  may  be  the  state  of  the  weather, 
keep  ypur  glasses  down,  and  constantly  covered 
with  straw  matting. 

Though  we  have  thus  far  taken  for  granted  that 
the  temperature  of  the  hotbed  is  a  proper  one,  still,  as 
accidents  sometimes  occur  in  that  respect,  and  of  a 
character  and  with  effects  directly  opposite  to  each 
other,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  remark  that,  for  ten 
days  after  the  roots  are  put  down,  the  degree  of 
heat  in  the  bed  must  be  carefully  watched,  lest  it 
be  too  great ;  and,  if  found  to  be  so,  holes  must  be 
"mmediately  bored,  with  a  stake  of  two  or  three 
inches  diameter,  into  the  fermenting  mass  from 
without,  and  other  similar  holes  into  the  earth  di- 
rectly below  the  roots;  and  when,  by  these  means, 
the  heat  is  sufficiently  moderated,  the  holes  are  to 
be  carefully  stopped.  On  the  other  hand,  should 
the  heat  be  found  insufficient  or  to  decline  too  rap- 
idly, a  moment  must  not  be  lost  in  giving  a  new 
lining  of  fresh  and  hot  dung  to  the  sides  of  the  bed. 
The  common  method  of  ascertaining  the  degree  of 
heat  in  these  cases,  is  to  run  down  a  sharp-pointed 
stick  between  the  roots,  and,  if  it  become  suddenly 
and  greatly  heated,  or  heated  in  a  small  degree,  or 
not  at  ail,  the  conclusion  is  drawn  accordingly.  Foi 
ourselves,  we  have  found  the  finger  a  very  safe  ther 
13 


164  GARDENING. 

mometer,  and  having  this  advantage  over  any  other, 
that  it  is  sure  to  be  always  at  hand. 

In  four  weeks  the  plants  will  be  fit  for  use,  and, 
if  well  managed,  will  give  buds  for  three  weeks  to 
come.  But  it  may  be  useful  to  notice,  that  the 
mode  of  taking  these  differs  from  that  used  for 
plants  raised  in  the  natural  way.  If  you  employ  a 
knife,  you  cannot  fail  to  destroy  many  young  plants 
(on  account  of  the  closeness  with  which  they  stand 
to  each  other) ;  but  the  mode  by  which  you  do  least 
mischief  is  to  thrust  your  finger  down  along  side 
of  the  bud.  and  break  it  off  at  the  root. 

We  shall  close  this  article  with  the  description 
of  a  method  practised  in  France,  which  will  prob- 
ably be  new  to  most  of  our  readers,  and  which,  we 
think,  may  be  usefully  employed  as  part  of  the  hot- 
bed method  just  described.  We  quote  from  the 
N.  Cours  d'Agriculture,  art.  Asperge.  "  M.  Sequen, 
of  Baz-Sur-le-Seine,  introduces  the  bud,  the  day  it 
shows  itself,  into  the  neck  of  a  broken  or  cracked 
bottle,  through  which  it  alternately  mounts  and  de- 
scends until  it  completely  fills  the  whole  cavity. 
One  of  these  plants  is  sufficient  for  a  dish,  weighs 
14  oz.,  and  is  as  tender  and  well  flavoured  as  the 
buds  taken  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  neck  of  the 
inverted  bottle  is  pressed  into  the  earth  as  far  as  ii 
will  go,  and  other  means  employed  to  keep  it  up- 
right ;  a  condition  necessary  to  the  success  of  the 
experiment." 

The  BEAN  (Fabd),  a  genus  of  plants  according  to 
Tournefort  and  Jessieu,  and  a  species  [of  Viciaj  ac- 
cording to  Linnajus  and  other  botanists.  Olivier 
found  it  growing  spontaneously  in  Persia,  and  con- 
siders it  a  native  of  that,  or  of  some  neighbouring 
part  of  Asia. 

The  ancients  had  many  ridiculous  prejudices  in 
relation  to  this  vegetable.  In  Egypt,  to  look  at 
it  was  an  act  of  uncleanness.  In  Greece,  Pythag 
oras  forbade  its  use  ;  and  at  Rome,  the  Flamen  Di 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  165 

alis  was  not  permitted  to  name  it.  This  proscrip- 
tion is  differently  accounted  for  by  different  writers. 
Clemens  Alexandrinus  ascribes  it  to  a  supposed 
property  in  the  bean  to  create  barrenness  in  animals ; 
and  Theophrastus  superadds  a  similar  property  in  re- 
lation to  vegetables  ;  while  Cicero  accounts  for  it  by 
alleging  that  it  "disturbed  the  mind,  and  obscured 
the  faculty  of  divination  by  dreams."  It  has,  how- 
ever, surmounted  all  these  prejudices,  and  has  long 
been  in  general  use,  either  in  a  green  or  dry  state,  in 
every  part  of  the  world. 

Of  the  species  we  have  mentioned,  the  horsebean 
is  supposed  to  be  the  type,  and  has  many  varieties, 
known  in  different  places  by  different  names,  as  the 
Julian,  the  Mazagan,  the  Toker,  the  Sandwich,  the 
Spanish,  the  green  Genoa,  and  the  Windsor.  Of  the 
Kidney  bean  (the  Phaseolus  Vulgaris),  the  varieties 
are  still  more  multiplied,  as  they  alter,  when  planted 
near  each  other,  by  reciprocal  fecundation.  La 
Buriays,  in  his  La  Quintanie,  enumerates  sixty,  and 
M.  Bosc  says  that,  in  the  garden  of  M.  Gavoty  de 
Resthe,  he  had  seen  four  hundred.* 

But,  however  multiplied  the  races,  the  character 
and  habits  of  the  plants  continue  to  be  nearly  the 
same.  They  all  affect  a  strong,  substantial,  moist 
soil,  well  dug  and  abundantly  manured ;  and  the  en- 
emies they  most  dread  are  late  and  frosty  springs, 
and  early  and  hot  summers.  These  circumstances 
cannot  fail  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  cultivator, 
and  the  more  so  as  they  involve  a  practical  contra- 
diction; for  as  the  one  invites  to  late  planting,  so 
the  other  would  appear  to  forbid  it.  The  only 
remedy,  in  this  case,  is  to  regulate  our  labours,  not 
by  the  almanac,  but  by  the  temperature  of  the 
weather  and  the  earth,  which  will  never  deceive  us. 
When  these  begin  to  favour  vegetation,  and  not  be- 
fore, dig  and  manure  your  ground  thoroughly,  and 

*  N.  Cours  d'Agriculture,  art.  Feve. 


166  GARDENING. 

(after  smoothing  the  surface  and  forming  the  drill*) 
begin  by  planting  the  Toker,  broad  Spanish,  and 
Windsor,  and  subsequently  the  Mazagan,  early  Lis- 
bon, long  pod,  white  blossom,  and  green  Genoa,  the 
former  four  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  and  the  latter 
half  that  distance.  The  effect  of  this  management 
will  be  to  secure  a  succession  of  fruit,  according  to 
the  different  degrees  of  precocity  in  the  plants  ;  and 
to  make  the  varieties  which  bear  cold  the  best  the 
first,  and  those  which  are  least  injured  by  heat  the 
last  in  the  series. 

The  kidney-bean,  being  more  sensible  of  cold 
and  wet  weather  than  the  preceding  species,  must 
be  planted  later.  Its  varieties  are  divided  into  two 
races;  the  climbing  and  the  dwarf  (scandens  et 
thumilis),  the  former  requiring  poles  to  support 
them,  the  other  requiring  no  support.  Of  the  first 
of  these  races,  the  most  approved  are,  the  Prague, 
the  Prudhome,  the  altogether-yellow,  and  the  red; 
and  of  the  second,  the  Dutch,  the  Laon,  the  yellow, 
and  the  Swiss.*  After  the  preparatory  labour  in- 
dicated above,  the  climbers  should  be  planted  in 
groups  (four  or  five  together),  with  a  pole,  well  fixed 
in  the  earth,  for  them  to  mount  upon;  while  the 
dwarfs  should  be  placed  in  rows,  at  the  distance  of 
two  or  three  inches  from  each  other,  and  carefully 
covered.  Squares  of  these  (the  dwarfs)  may  be 
planted  from  April  till  August,  according  to  the 
taste  and  convenience  of  the  cultivator.  • 

The  last  species  we  shall  mention  and  the  latest 
to  be  sown,  is  the  Lima  bean,  which  ought  not  to 
be  hazarded  before  the  frosts  are  completely  over, 
and  then  committed  only  to  a  rich,  warm,  and  well- 
laboured  soil.  It  is  usually  and  best  cultivated 
(like  all  other  climbers)  in  what  gardeners  call  /tills, 
composed  of  rich  mould,  and  separated  six  feet  from 

*  A  new  variety  of  climbers,  called  the  Horticultural  bfian, 
has  lately  come  into  notice,  much  admired  for  its  rich  flavour 
and  prolific  properties. — J.  B. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  167 

each  other.  Four  or  five  beans,  and  two  or  three 
stout  poles  nine  or  ten  feet  in  length,  are  sufficient 
for  each  hill.  When  the  beans  begin  to  run  they 
should  be  trained  to  mount  the  poles,  for  it  is  only 
by  doing  so  that  they  will  receive  that  degree  of 
air  and  of  sunshine  which  is  necessary  to  the  pro- 
duction of  their  fruit.* 

Our  remarks  thus  far  have  been  confined,  or 
nearly  so,  to  the  sowing  of  the  bean.  Those  which 
follow  apply  to  its  management  after  that  work  is 
over,  and  are  common  to  the  labours  necessary  or 
useful  to  the  whole  family.  -  When  the  plant  has 
attained  the  length  of  three  or  four  inches,  the  earth 
about  its  roots  should  be  loosened  with  the  hoe,  and 
a  fresh  portion  of  it  drawn  up  to  the  stem.  The 
rule  for  subsequent  labours  is  to  hoe  again  when 
the  flowers  begin  to  show  themselves,  and  a  third 
time  about  a  month  after  the  second  hoeing;  but 
the  better  practice  is  to  take  as  our  guide,  in  this 
respect,  not  the  condition  of  the  plant,  but  that  of 
the  soil  and  of  the  weather ;  and,  whenever  the  latter 
is  dry  and  hot,  or  the  former  hard,  or  baked,  or  in- 
fested with  weeds,  repeat  the  hoeing ;  remember- 
ing that  it  is  not  easy  to  commit  any  excess  in  this 
way;  and,  in  general,  that  the  oftener  the  work  is 
repeated  (unless  the  weather  be  wet),  the  finer  and 
more  abundant  will  be  the  crop. 

When  the  bean  is  sufficiently  in  blossom  (which 
is  taken  for  granted  as  soon  as  the  lower  or  first 
formed  pods  begin  to  swell),  it  is  a  practice  not  un- 
common to  pinch  off  the  tops  of  the  vines  ;  the  ob- 
ject of  which  is  to  prevent  the  plant  from  having 
more  pods  than  it  can  bring  to  perfection,  and  to 
render  better  those  which  are  left,  by  giving  to  them 
a  nutriment  which  would  have  otherwise  gone  to 

*  The  Carolina  bean  is  but  a  variety  of  the  Limn,  and  is 
therefore  to  be  managed  in  the  same  way,  with  the  exception 
that,  being  less  in  volume,  four  feet  t  'tween  the  hills  give  suf- 
ficient room  for  ic. 


168  GARDENING. 

the  support  of  a  useless  portion  of  stem.  But  of 
this  practice,  and  of  the  theory  on  which  it  is  found- 
ed, we  may  be  permitted  to  doubt,  because  it  does 
not  appear  to  follow  that,  when  the  growth  of  a 
plant  is  checked  or  suspended  in  one  direction,  it 
will  not  exert  itself  in  another  as  injuriously  to  the 
crop  as  any  increased  length  of  stem  would  have 
done.  Every  day's  experience  shows  that,  if  we 
pollard  an  apple-tree,  we  indeed  stop  its  growth  up- 
ward, but  that,  instead  of  sending  its  surplus  juices 
to  the  support  and  enlargement  of  the  fruit  (as  this 
practice  supposes),  it  hastens  to  throw  out  lateral 
stems  or  suckers,  which  give  no  fruit  whatever. 
Our  creed  therefore  is,  that  in  the  vegetable  econ- 
omy, certain  juices  go  to  the  production  of  stem, 
and  certain  others,  more  elaborated  and  of  a  differ- 
ent quality,  to  that  of  flowers  and  fruits  ;  and  that, 
whether  desirable  or  not,  the  art  of  giving  to  either 
a  destination  different  from  what  nature  intended,  is 
yet  to  be  discovered. 

The  bean,  of  every  species  or  variety,  is  exempt, 
as  we  believe,  from  the  depredations  of  insects  ;  but, 
left  for  seed  or  winter  use,  it  often  suffers  from 
very  dry  or  very  wet  weather;  the  one  diminishing 
the  bulk,  and  hardening  and  shrivelling  the  skin  ;  the 
other  rotting  the  bean,  and,  when  it  does  least  mis- 
chief, altering  its  flavour.  For  the  former,  frequent 
watering  may  be  a  cure,  but  for  the  latter  there  is 
perhaps  no  remedy. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  cities,  the  dwarf  varieties 
are  often  cultivated  in  hotbeds,  but  the  product  is 
always  of  a  very  inferior  kind ;  for,  of  the  whole 
catalogue  of  table  vegetables,  none  is  more  apt  to 
take  a  disagreeable  flavour  from  hot  and  fermented 
dung  (which  is  the  basis  of  these  beds)  than  the 
bean.  Of  this  process,  therefore,  we  only  say.  that 
it  differs  in  nothing  from  that  already  described  for 
forcing  asparagus.* 

*  N.  C.  d'Agriculture,  art.  Feye. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  169 

The  BEET  (Beta)  is  of  the  family  of  the  Cheno- 
podees,  and  contains  five  species,  two  of  which,  the 
Beta  Cycla  and  Beta  Hortensis,  are  objects  of  gar- 
den culture.  The  former  is  what  the  English  call 
the  Maratime  beet,  and  the  French  the  Poiree. 
Some  botanists  have  regarded  this  as  the  type  of  the 
genus,  while  others  consider  it  a  product  of  cultiva- 
tion. Its  varieties  are  two,  the  tall  and  the  Dutch 
which  are  used  for  the  same  purposes ;  the  leaves 
as  salad,  or  as  an  ingredient  in  soups,  either  alone 
or  mixed  with  sorrel ;  and  the  roots  as  food  for  cat- 
tle, and  particularly  for  hogs. 

Of  the  second  species  there  are  five  varieties, 
which  take  their  names  from  their  colour  or  size  ; 
the  yellow,  the  white,  the  large  red,  the  small 
red,  and  the  white  with  red  veins.  It  is  to  this 
last  variety  that  M.  Commeril  has  given  the  whim- 
sical name  of  Scarcity,  though  its  products  per 
acre  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  garden  vege- 
table.* 

Like  all  other  garden  plants,  the  beet  is  nutritive 
in  proportion  to  the  saccharine  matter  it  contains. 
Of  the  varieties  we  have  named,  the  yellow  has  the 
most,  and  the  white  veined  with  red  the  least  of 
this  matter.  Yet  the  experiments  of  M.  Deyeux 
prove  that  colour  has  less  to  do  with  this  produc- 
tion than  culture.  "  Two  beds,"  says  he,  "  of  sim- 
ilar soil,  and  laboured  alike,  were  sown  with  beet- 
seed  of  the  same  variety.  One  of  these  was  high- 
ly manured  with  well-rotted  dung,  the  other  had  no 
manure  of  any  kind  applied  to  it.  The  beets  grown 
in  the  former  were  large,  but,  on  analysis,  yielded 
no  saccharine  matter,  while  those  grown  on  the 
latter  gave  the  ordinary  quantity  of  sugar." 

Margraff  f  was  the  first  to  extract  from  the  beet 

*  See  Arthur  Young  on  the  product  of  the  beet,  and  a  me- 
moir of  M.  d'Aughbigny,  in  the  16th  volume  of  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  the  Seine. 

t  About  a  century  ago. 


170  GARDENING. 

a  marketable  sugar,  or  what  is  called  the  sugar  of 
commerce.  Achard  followed  in  the  same  track, 
and  with  a  success  that  led  him  to  believe  that  it 
might  be  afforded  at  the  low  price  of  five  or  six 
sous  the  pound ;  but  later  experiments,  more  care- 
fully and  scientifically  made,  under  the  direction  of 
the  French  Institute,  demonstrate  that  this  product 
can  never  come  into  competition  with  sugar  made 
from  the  cane.*f  The  saccharine  mucus  in  which 
it  abounds,  and  the  disposition  it  has  to  vinous  fer- 
mentation, has,  however,  long  since  suggested  an- 
other employment  of  it,  that  of  making  brandy, 
and  hence  it  is,  that  in  countries  in  which  the 
vine  does  not  prosper  (as  in  the  north  of  Germa- 
ny), great  quantities  of  it  are  distilled  into  an  ardenl 
spirit. 

The  cultivation  of  the  beet,  whatever  be  its  spe- 
cies or  variety,  is  the  same.  Having  prepared  (by 
a  thorough  digging)  a  square  of  loose,  rich,  and  deep 
soilj  (which  has  been  well  manured  the  preceding 
fall),  divide  it  into  beds  of  four  feet  width ;  score 

*  It  may  not  be  amiss  to  mention  here  the  process  for  ma- 
king sugar  from  the  beet,  ascribed  to  Professor  Gottling,  and 
detailed  in  the  1 6th  volume  of  the  Bibliotheque  Brittaniyue.  "  To 
disengage  the  saccharine  matter  from  the  mucus,  which  pre- 
vents it  from  crystallizing,  cut  the  roots  into  long  slices,  and  as 
thin  as  possible,  and  dry  them  on  tiles  in  a  stove.  When  thor- 
oughly dry,  put  them  for  some  hours  in  a  small  quantity  of  cold 
water.  The  sugar  will  pass  from  the  beet  to  the  water  before 
the  slices  are  softened,  and  may  be  again  separated  from  it  (the 
water)  by  evaporation  and  crystallization.  If  we  attempt  to  dry 
the  beet  in  the  open  air,  many  of  them  will  rot ;  and  if  you  put 
them  in  an  oven,  you  run  the  risk  of  baking  them.  The  residu- 
um which  this  process  leaves  is  useful  for  cattle,  poultry,  &c." 

t  This  prediction  has  not  been  verified  ;  for  in  France  beet 
sugar  has  come  into  serious  competition  with  that  made  from 
cane,  in  consequence  of  the  manufacturing  process  being  greatly 
improved  and  simplified,  and  the  whole  of  the  saccharine  mat 
ter  being  now  extracted  from  the  roots. — J.  B. 

J  Yet  Mr.  Cobbett  recommends  sowing  beet  seed  in  the  fall 
like  parsnips,  and  says  the  frost  cannot  injure  them  ! 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  171 

these  lengthwise  about  an  inch  and  a  half  deep,  and 
one  foot  asunder;  drop  the  seeds*  into  these  rows 
thinly,  and  draw  over  them  a  light  covering  of  the 
surface  soil,  trodden  down  with  the  foot. 

As  the  beet  is  easily  affected  by  frost,  the  plant- 
ing of  the  main  crop  should  be  delayed  till  the  mid- 
dle of  May.  A  month  after,  or  so  soon  as  the 
plants  have  put  out  three  or  four  leaves,  thin  the 
rows  so  as  to  leave  the  young  beets  at  the  distance 
of  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  apart ;  and  if  there  be 
chasms  in  the  rows,  as  will  sometimes  happen  from 
bad  seed  or  unskilful  sowing,  fill  these  up  with  the 
surplus  plants.  The  intervals  between  the  rows 
should  at  the  same  time  be  thoroughly  cleaned  from 
weeds,  and  the  oftener  this  operation  is  performed 
and  the  ground  stirred  during  the  whole  course  of 
vegetation  in  the  plant,  the  larger  will  be  the  pro- 
duct and  the  better  its  quality.  In  dry  weather, 
and  during  the  infancy  of  the  plant,  watering  is  in- 
dispensable. 

Some  writers  have  proposed  raising  the  beet  in 
seedbeds  and  transplanting  it ;  but  experience  for- 
bids this  practice,  as  the  fact  is  well  established 
that,  other  things  being  equal,  the  transplanted  beet 
is  never  so  fine  as  that  which  has  been  left  undis- 
turbed ;  a  remark,  by-the-way,  which  applies  gen- 
erally, perhaps  universally,  to  tap-rooted  plants. 

As  soon  as  vegetation  is  over,  which  always  oc- 
curs after  the  first  hard  frost,  take  up  the  plants, 
expose  them  a  day  or  two  to  the  air  to  evaporate 

*  The  same  author  attributes  the  forking  of  beets,  not  to 
stones  or  clods,  as  is  generally  done,  but  to  working  and  ma- 
nuring the  ground  around  their  roots,  which,  according  to  his 
theory,  attracts  one  side  of  the  root  to  the  right  and  the  other 
to  the  left,  and  never  stops  till  it  gives  the  plant  two  legs  to  stand 
upon  instead  of  one.  How  happens  it,  then,  that  in  deep,  rich, 
.oose  soils,  whatever  be  the  labour,  there  is  no  forking,  and  that 
in  stony  or  cloddy  ground,  though  little  worked,  there  is  so 
much  of  it  ?  This  subject  will  be  found  fully  discussed  in  the 
N.  C.  d'Agriculture,  art.  Beterave. 
14 


GARDENING. 

their  surplus  moisture,  and  then  house  them  care- 
fully. This  is  best  done  by  putting  them  in  layers 
in  a  dry  cellar,  and  interposing  between  them  a 
slight  covering  of  sand. 

A  few  of  the  largest  and  finest  roots  should  be 
kept  for  seed.  Twenty  of  them,  set  out  in  the 
spring  and  occasionally  laboured,  will  give  nearly 
a  bushel  of  seed. 

THE  CABBAGE  (Brasica)  is  a  genus  of  plants  con- 
taining several  species,  of  which  the  cabbage,  prop- 
erly so  called,  and  two  or  three  others,  are  objects 
of  garden  culture.  It  is  only  of  the  first  (to  which 
botanists  have  given  the  name  of  Brasica  Oleracea) 
and  its  varieties  that  we  mean  to  speak  at  present, 
and  of  these  there  are  more  than  fifty  ;*  some  of 
which  differ  so  entirely  from  others  as  to  have  puz- 
zled the  savans  in  finding  for  them  any  common 
character.!  To  extenuate,  if  not  to  extinguish,  this 
reproach  to  science,  M.  Duchesne  has  ingeniously 
divided  them  into  six  races,  distinguished  by  the 
parts  which  severally  render  them  objects  of  culti- 
vation, viz. : 

The  Oleracea,  cultivated  for  the  seed,  which  gives 
an  oil ; 

The  Viridis,  for  its  open  and  upright  long  and 
broad  leaves ; 

The  Capitata,  for  its  leaves,  in  a  round  or  flat  and 
compact  form,  called  a  head; 

*  When  Brussonnet  was  at  the  head  of  the  great  national 
garden  at  Altfort,  in  France,  he  had  collected  more  than  fifty 
of  these  varieties. 

t  "  Le  chou,  dont  les  varietes  sont  si  nombreuses  (j'en  ai  vu 
cultiver  simultanement  plus  de  cinquante)  et  si  differentes  les 
unes  des  autres,  qu'il  est  impossible  de  leur  assigner  un  charac 
tere  commun,  est  une  plante  annuelle  originaire  des  bords  de  la 
mer." — PARMENTIER. 

.  The  cabbage,  of  which  the  varieties  are  so  numerous  (I  have 
aeen  more  than  fifty  different  kinds  cultivated  together),  and  so 
unlike  each  other  that  it  is  impossible  to  ascribe  to  them  a  com 
mon  character,  is  an  annual  plant,  originally  growing  on  the 
borders  of  the  sea. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  173 

The  Coliflora,  for  its  branches,  buds,  and  flowers 

The  Rapa-Brasica,  for  its  root;  and 

The  Napus-Brasica,  for  its  stem. 

With  the  first  and  last  of  these  varieties  we  have 
nothing  to  do,  as  they  belong  exclusively  to  field 
culture.  We  begin,  therefore,  with 

The  Green,  of  which  there  are  many  sub-varieties, 
called  by  different  names,  as  borecole,  Jerusalem 
kale,  Scotch  kale,  Brussels  sprouts,  Cavalier,  &c., 
&c..  some  of  which  are  red  and  others,  green,  some 
curled  and  others  smooth,  but  agreeing  in  two  cir- 
cumstances :  the  open  erect  leaf,  and  a  power  of 
resisting  frost  much  beyond  that  of  any  other  vari- 
ety of  the  family.  It  is  this  last  circumstance  that 
particularly  recommends  it ;  for  a  frost  that  would 
be  destructive  of  head  cabbage  will  make  kale 
better.  This  fact  determines  its  use  in  garden  cul- 
ture, which  is  always  for  winter  and  spring  greens. 

Head  cabbage,  like  the  preceding,  is  subdivided 
into  races,  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the 
smoothness  or  curl  of  the  leaf,  and  by  the  colour 
of  the  flower.  Of  the  smooth-leafed  and  yellow- 
flowered  race,  the  most  approved  varieties  are  the 
early  dwarf,  the  early  York,  the  early  Bonneuil, 
the  white  Alsace,  the  red  cabbage,  and  the  Stras- 
burg  or  Quintal.*  Of  the  curled  sort,  the  early 
Milan,  the  Milan  taper,  the  golden,  and  the  green 
dwarf  Savoy,  are  the  best. 

The  Cauliflower. — The  organization  of  this  race 
differs  considerably  from  those  we  have  mentioned. 
In  them  the  juices  are  principally  determined  to  the 
leaves,  whereas  in  this  they  are  directed  to  the  ped- 
uncles, producing  a  mass  of  branches  and  buds 
equally  tender  and  delicate.  Of  this  race  there  are 

*  In  the  cultivation  of  the  cabbage  (and  in  this  they  appear 
to  have  been  very  successful),  the  Romans  particularly  aimed 
at  giving  to  the  plant  great  size.  "  Caule  in  tantum  saginato, 
ut  pauperie  mensa  non  capiat,"  says  Pliny.  "  The  cabbage  of 
such  size  that  the  dish  would  not  hold  it." 


174  GARDENING. 

two  varieties  :  the  cauliflower  proper  and  the  broc- 
coli, each  of  which  has  its  sub-varieties.  Those 
of  the  former  are  the  hard  (called  also  the  English 
cauliflower)  and  the  tender.  The  first,  being  occa- 
sionally very  productive,  would  be  exclusively  cul- 
tivated, did  it  succeed  equally  well  at  all  times  and 
in  all  places ;  but  its  capriciousness  makes  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  second  sort  proper,  because,  though 
this  may  sometimes  give  little,  it  will  always  give 
something.  The  sub-varieties  of  the  broccoli  are 
two,  the  common  and  the  Maltese*  distinguishable 
only  by  the  number,  the  bulk,  and  the  colour  of  the 
flowers,  f 

Turnip  Cabbage. — Like  the  preceding,  this  has  its 
peculiarities  ;  fo'r,  after  attaining  its  ordinary  height, 
the  leaf  falls,  and  the  stem  swells  to  a  circumfer- 
ence of  many  inches,  enclosing  a  succulent,  nutri- 
tious, and  agreeable  matter,  for  the  sake  of  which 
the  plant  is  cultivated.! 

Races  so  different  in  appearance  and  in  the  laws 
which  govern  them,  may  be  supposed  to  require 
different  kinds  and  degrees  of  culture :  but  what  of 
this  is  common  to  all  forms  not  only  the  larger,  but 
by  much  the  most  essential  part  of  the  treatment. 
We  shall,  therefore,  speak  first  of  this,  and  then  of 
the  less  important  particulars  in  which  their  man- 
agement may  differ. 

Every  variety  of  cabbage  grows  best  in  a  strong, 
rich,  substantial  soil,  inclining  rather  to  clay  than 
to  sand ;  but  will  grow  in  any  soil  if  it  be  thoroughly 
worked  and  abundantly  manured  with  well-rotted 
dung.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  the  ground  designed 
for  the  crop  has  been  thus  prepared,  and  offers  signs 
of  spontaneous  vegetation,  the  planting  of  early  cab- 

*  Now  generally  denominated  "  Kohl-rabbi,"  or  "  turnip-root- 
ed cabbage." — J.  B 

f  The  common  terms  now  given  to  the  broccoli  by  gardeners 
are  the  White  and  Red  Cape.— J.  B. 

\  Some  of  the  bulbs  get  to  be  twenty-three  inches  in  circumfer- 
ence, and  weigh  twelve  pounds." — M'Mahon,  page  317 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  175 

bages  should  begin.  But  without  plants  this  cannot 
be  done,  and  these  are  only  to  be  had  from  a  hotbed 
prepared  in  January  or  February  (as  for  asparagus), 
and  sown  with  the  seeds  of  cauliflowers,  of  broc- 
coli, and  of  the  early  sorts  of  the  head  cabbage.* 
When  the  plants  are  two  or  three  inches  high,  they 
should  be  removed  to  another  hotbed  of  lower  tem- 
perature and  larger  surface,  where  they  should  re- 
main until  transferred  to  the  open  air,  and  to  the 
bed  where  they  are  permanently  to  stand.  The 
time  for  doing  this  (as  already  indicated)  is  when 
the  earth,  by  its  spontaneous  productions,  discovers 
the  warmth  necessary  for  vegetation.  To  do  it  ear- 
lier would  be  to  risk  your  plants,  and  not  to  do  it 
now  would  be  to  fail  in  your  intention  of  having 
early  cabbages.  The  time  of  this  last  transplant- 
ing is  also  that  for  forming  seedbeds  in  the  open 
air  for  your  winter  supply. t  As  in  the  former  case, 
the  plants,  when  two  or  three  inches  high,  must  be 
removed  to  beds  prepared  for  them,  and  thence,  be- 
tween the  1st  and  20th  of  June,  be  transferred  to 
their  permanent  beds.  No  vegetable  bears  trans- 
planting better  than  the  cabbage.  The  advantages 
resulting  from  it  are  shorter  and  stouter  steins  and 
larger  heads,  which  rarely  burst  or  run  to  seed.| 

The  act  of  planting  should  be  performed  care- 
fully. Holes  of  sufficient  depth  and  width  should 
be  dibbled,  for  the  smaller  sorts  of  cabbages  at  the- 
distance  of  two  feet  and  a  half,  and  for  the  larger 
sorts  of  three  feet  every  way.  In  these  the  plants 
should  be  placed"  up  to  their  lower  leaves,^  and  the 

*  M'Mihon  advises  sowing  the  seeds  of  the  early  sorts  in 
September,  in  the  open  air,  transplanting  them  to  hotbeds  in 
November,  and  pricking  them  out  in  the  spring. 

t  We  have  found  that  from  the  25th  to  the  28th  May  is  early 
enough  to  sow  winter  cabbages  and  broccoli.  If  sown  earlier, 
they  mature  too  early,  and  many  of  the  heads  of  the  cabbage 
break  open  before  winter,  and  the  broccoli  runs  to  seed  and 
waste  unless  there  be  a  market  at  hand. — J.  B. 

J  See  Millar,  Beriays,  M'Mahon,  &c.,  &c. 

§  The  turnip  cabbage  is  an  exception  to  this  rule.  The 
earth  must  only  be  brought  to  the  bulb. 


176  GARDENING. 

earth  brought  closely  about  the  roots,  which  is  best 
done  by  pushing  down  the  dibbler  at  a  small  angle 
with  the  plant,  and  then  bringing  it  up  to  it  with  a 
jerk.  This  leaves  no  chambering  (as  gardeners  call 
it),  no  vacancy  between  the  plant  and  the  soil. 

The  state  of  the  weather  when  these  operations 
are  performed  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference,  and 
has  been  a  subject  of  controversy ;  some  recom- 
mending dry  weather,  others  wet.  As  in  many 
other  disputed  cases,  the  truth  lies  between  them  ; 
that  is,  moist  weather,  which  is  neither  dry  nor 
wet,  and  is  precisely  that  which  is  best  for  putting 
out  cabbages,  or  any  other  vegetable.  We  ought 
not,  however,  to  wait  long  for  even  this  most  fa- 
vourable state  of  tire  atmosphere,  since,  with  a  little 
labour,  we  have  the  means  of  making  up  for  its 
absence.  If  the  weather  be  dry,  water  green  and 
head  cabbage  plants  once  a  day ;  and  cauliflower, 
broccoli,  and  turnip  cabbage  plants  twice  a  day, 
till  they  have  taken  root.  Without  a  good  deal  of 
water,  the  last  is  apt  to  become  stringy  and  even 
ligneous;  and  in  Spain  and  Italy,  where  cauliflow- 
ers and  broccoli  are  finest,  they  are  generally  plant- 
ed in  trenches,  on  the  very  margin  of  little  rivulets, 
natural  or  artificial. 

The  three  last-mentioned  varieties  require  more 
of  manure  and  labour,  as  well  as  of  water,  than  the 
others  r  and  in  this  circumstance  consists  t-he  prin- 
cipal difference  of  treatment  in  the  cultivation  of 
them.  The  most  successful  method  with  the  cau- 
liflower race  is  to  place  them  in  trenches  two  feet 
and  a  half  from  each  other,  and  on  layers  of  equal 
parts  of  earth  and  cow-dung  thoroughly  mixed  to- 
gether. Whenever  weeds  encroach  upon  these,  let 
them  be  well  hoed ;  and,  whenever  hoed,  let  fresh 
earth  be  brought  up  to  the  plants.  For  head  cab- 
bage, hoeing  and  earthing  once  a  month  is  the  ordi- 
nary rule.* 

*  Once  or  twice  a  week  is  preferable. — J.  B. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  177 

The  modes  of  preserving  these  varieties  through 
the  winter  are  also  somewhat  different.  The  open- 
leaved  sorts  may  be  left  where  they  have  grown,* 
and  used  as  wanted.  Head  cabbage  may  be  set  in 
cellars,  or  buried  in  holes  or  trenches  in  the  gar- 
den, and  covered  with  straw  and  earth;  cauliflow- 
ers must  be  housed  in  cellars  or  barns,  and  hung  up 
by  their  roots ;  and  broccoli,  which  does  not  bear 
this  treatment,  may  be  left  in  the  garden,!  and  man- 
aged in  the  way  last  suggested  for  head  cabbage. 
The  stalks  of  the  more  common  species  are  worth 
preserving ;  and,  when  set  out  in  the  spring,  give 
sprouts,;};  which  furnish  an  excellent  and  well-timed 
article  for  the  table. 

A  few  of  the  best  plants  of  each  variety  should 
be  kept  for  seed ;  and,  in  setting  them  out,  care 
must  be  taken  to  keep  them  as  far  apart  as  possible. 

THE  CARROT  (Daucus). — This  genus  comprehends 
several  species,  the  principal  of  which  is  the  Dau- 
cus Carota.  Of  this  there  are  three  varieties,  the 
white,  the  orange  or  yellow,  and  the  red :  having 
perhaps  different  qualities  in  different  soils  and  cli- 
mates, as  we  find  the  white  preferred  in  Italy,  the 
yellow  in  France,  and  the  red  in  England.  Abbe 
Rozier  says  of  the  white  variety,  that  "  it  is  less 
injured  by  humidity  than  the  others;"  which,  as  is 
justly  remarked  by  the  compilers  of  the  Cours  d'Ag- 
riculture,  would  be  a  good  reason  why  it  should  be 
preferred  in  England,  or  in  some  of  the  northern  or 
western  provinces  of  France,  but  a  very  bad  one 

*  Even  the  open-leaved  sorts  are  better  to  be  buried  in  trench- 
es. A  hard  winter  will  utterly  destroy  them  in  the  open  ground. 
— J.  B. 

t  In  France,  the  winter  management  of  the  broccoli  is  ex- 
actly that  of  the  artichoke.  See  Parmentier  and  the  Phytolo- 
gie  Universelle  of  Jolyclerc. 

J  It  has  been  suggested  that  cabbage  sprouts,  taken  off  like 
suckers  from  artichokes,  and  planted,  will  give  good  heads,  and 
sooner  than  they  can  otherwise  be  obtained ;  but  of  this  we 
have  ourselves  no  experience. 


178  GARDENING. 

why  a  preference  should  be  given  to  it  in  Italy, 
where  the  climate  is  remarkably  dry.  Many  wri- 
ters speak  of  a  fourth  variety,  the  round  or  turnip- 
rooted  carrot  of  Holland ;  but  M.  Thouin  considers 
this  form  of  root  as  a  mere  imperfection  in  the 
plant,  arising  from  a  stiff  subsoil,  which  prevents 
its  penetrating  into  the  earth. 

The  carrot,  like  the  beet,  contains  much  saccha- 
rine matter,  but  of  a  quality  less  valuable,  as  it  can- 
not be  made  to  crystallize.  An  extract  may,  how- 
ever, be  taken  from  it,  which  forms  no  bad  substi- 
tute for  honey. 

The  culture  of  the  carrot  does  not  differ  at  all 
from  that  of  the  beet.  The  seeds  (from  their  long 
and  hairy  covering)  are  apt  to  catch  and  hold  fast  to 
each  other;  and  should  therefore  be  well  rubbed 
with  sand,  and  separated  before  they  are  sown.  If 
the  plants  come  up  too  closely,  thin  them,  leaving 
twelve  or  fourteen  inches  between  them.  They 
will  be  the  finer,  not  only  from  the  increased  space 
to  grow  in,  but  from  the  greater  room  which  such 
space  affords  for  the  hoe  or  the  hook.*  They  are 
taken  up  at  the  same  period  as  beets,  and,  like  them, 
are  preserved  through  the  winter  in  cellars  or  root- 
houses  made  for  the  purpose. 

A  few  of  the  roots  put  out  in  the  spring,  when 
the  frosts  are  over,  will  give  abundance  of  seed. 

CELERY  (Apium  Graveolens). — Of  this  there  are  two 
species,  the  branching  and  the  turnip-rooted.  Some 
botanists  have  conjectured  that  the  latter  (which  is 
sometimes  called  Celeriac)  was  only  a  variety  of 
the  former;  but  Millar  points  out  distinct  character- 
istics, and  asserts  that,  in  the  course  of  many  years 

*  M.Trolli  advises,  for  the  last  weeding,  the  employment  of  a 
hook  of  two  teeth,  15  or  1 6  inches  long.  He  says  that,  weeded  by 
this  instrument,  the  carrots  are  remarkably  improved.  As  soon 
as  the  tops  are  fully  out,  no  farther  weeding  is  necessary,  as 
these  will  suffocate  everything  growing  under  them,  and  pre- 
serve by  their  shade  the  necessary  humidity  in  the  soil. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  179 

t 

cultivation,  these  have  never  disappeared.  The 
roots  of  the  one  are  short  and  thick,  and,  in  the 
process  of  vegetation,  throw  up  tall  and  erect 
branches ;  while  those  of  the  other  have  the  shape, 
and,  in  favourable  situations,  the  size  of  a  turnip. 
The  leaves  of  this  last  species  are  shorter  than  those 
of  the  other,  and  its  top,  instead  of  rising  upright, 
spreads  horizontally.  The  essential  property,  which 
renders  the  plant  an  object  of  cultivation,  is  its  fla- 
vour, which  is  alike  in  both  species,  and  existing  in 
all  their  parts,  roots,  branches,  leaves,  and  seeds. 
Of  each  species  there  are  several  varieties,  taking 
their  names  from  colour  and  organization ;  as  the 
red,  the  solid,  the  hollow,  &c.,  modifications,  as  we 
believe,  entirely  of  culture. 

Celery  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  the  marshes  of 
Italy ;  a  fact  which  sufficiently  indicates  the  warmth 
and  moisture  necessary  for  its  proper  treatment 
here.  Sown  in  the  spring  and  in  the  open  air,  the 
seeds,  like  those  of  all  the  other  parsleys,  will  be 
slow  in  germinating ;  whence  it  follows  that,  to  have 
early  plants,  we  must  resort  to  the  aid  of  artificial 
heat.  A  hotbed,  such  as  that  mentioned  under  the 
head  of  asparagus,  will  supply  a  whole  neighbour- 
hood ;  but  one  of  cheaper  form  may  be  found  in 
a  couple  of  flower-pots  of  the  larger  size,  filled  with 
good  soil,  and  kept  in  a  room  moderately  warmed 
during  cold  weather.  If  the  apartment  has  a  win- 
dow of  southern  or  eastern  aspect,  the  pots  should 
be  placed  before  it,  so  as  to  give  them  light  and  air 
as  well  as  heat.  With  the  aid  of  water  a  little 
warmed,  the  seeds  sown  in  the  pots  will  show  them- 
selves in  a  fortnight ;  and  in  four  weeks  more  will 
be  fit  to  set  out  in  the  garden.  The  success  of  the 
experiment  thus  far  will,  however,  greatly  depend 
on  the  sowing ;  for,  if  this  has  been  done  with  a 
heavy  hand,  your  plants  will  come  up  tall,  and  feeble, 
and  diseased;  whereas,  if  sparsely  sown,  they  will 
rise  strong,  healthy,  and  verdant,  and  will  bear  the 


180  GARDENING. 

subsequent  transplanting  with  little,  if  any,  injury. 
As  soon  .as  the  frosts  are  over,  this  last  operation 
begins  ;  and  to  meet  it,  a  trench  or  trenches,  accord- 
ing to  the  quantity  of  the  article  required,  must  be 
cut  from  east  to  west,  remembering  to  throw  the 
displaced  earth  on  your  right  hand,  and  in  such  way 
as  to  form  an  additional  protection  against  the  north 
wind.  On  the  bottom  of  the  trench  must  be  placed 
a  layer  of  well-rotted  dung,  wood  ashes,  and  garden- 
mould,  thoroughly  incorporated,  and  on  the  surface 
of  this  set  your  plants  (trimmed  down  to  about  six 
inches  in  length),  at  the  distance  of  six  or  eight 
inches  from  each  other.  Care  must  be  taken  to  fix 
the  roots,  and  to  keep  the  young  branches  closely 
together,  the  better  to  prevent  any  portions  of  earth 
from  lodging  between  them  ;  after  which,  they  must 
be  watered  frequently  and  abundantly.*  The  next 
business  is  to  earth  them.  Some  of  the  French 
horticulturists  direct  this  to  be  done  at  a  single  op- 
eration, and  not  till  after  the  plant  has  acquired  its 
full  size ;  but  the  more  approved  method  is  to  do  it 
gradually  and  at  different  times.  The  objects  to  be 
obtained  by  this  operation  are  two  :  1st,  to  alter  the 
colour  of  the  plant  from  green  to  white ;  and,  2d,  to 
render  it  more  tender,  sweet,  and  succulent,  by 
shutting  out  light  and  heat,  and  preventing  dryness, 
which  give  it  an  acrid  taste,  and  render  its  fibres 
tough  and  hard,  and  even  woody. 

*  In  planting  out  celery,  as  well  as  cabbages  and  other  plants, 
we  have  successfully  adopted  Cobbett's  plan  of  transplanting  in 
fair  warm  days,  and,  if  the  ground  be  dry,  it  is  not  the  worse. 
The  plants  are  carefully  taken  up,  well  grouted,  that  is,  their 
roots  dipped  in  mud  of  the  consistence  of  porridge,  planted  in 
the  after  part  of  the  day,  and  watered  at  evening.  By  the  grout 
they  become  saturated  with  moisture,  and,  placed  in  a  warm 
soil,  they  in  a  few  hours  send  forth  their  radicles,  revive  and 
grow.  By  transplanting  in  this  manner  we  have  seldom  found 
it  necessary  to  water  a  second  time ;  and  the  plants  rarely  fail 
to  obtain  an  early  and  good  growth,  without  ever  being  covered 
to  protect  them  from  the  sun.  We  prefer  transplanting  this  way 
in  a  clear  hot  day,  to  doing  it  in  a  wet  and  cool  one. — J.  B. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  181 

The  Abbe  Rozier  has  suggested  that  the  whole 
labour,  delay,  and  risk  which  unavoidably  attend 
transplanting,  might  be  saved  by  preparing  trenches 
as  above  described,  and  sowing  the  seeds  in  them 
directly ;  but  though  obviously  the  best  method  in 
climates  of  the  south,  which  admit  sowing  in  Feb- 
ruary, it  is  by  no  means  clear  that  it  would  be 
equally  fitted  for  ours,  where  culture  in  the  open 
air  does  not  begin  till  April.  Coming,  however, 
from  so  high  an  authority,  the  plan  may  be  worthy 
of  an  experiment;  and,  if  even  successful  in  giving  a 
crop  for  winter  use,  it  would  no  doubt  tend  to  sim- 
plify and  abridge  our  labours. 

We  need  scarcely  remark,  that  it  is  of  the  culture 
of  the  branching  or  upright  celery  that  we  have  been 
thus  far  speaking,  as  the  turnip-rooted  sort  requires 
neither  trenching  nor  earthing.  Both  species  are 
preserved  through  the  winter  in  the  same  way, 
either  by  covering  the  plants  where  they  grow  with 
boards  and  stable  litter,  or  by  setting  the  roots  in 
sand,  in  the  corner  of  a  dark  and  moderately  warm 
roothouse  or  cellar.  Plants  which  have  been 
kept  in  the  former  way  are  the  fittest  for  giving 
seed,  and  should  be  preferred  for  that  purpose. 
When  this  (the  seed)  is  ripe,  it  separates  easily 
from  the  chaff,  and  should  then  be  rubbed  out  by 
the  hand,  put  in  paper  bags,  and  hung  up  in  a  dry 
and  ventilated  room  for  future  use. 

SUCCORY  (Cichorium). — But  two  species  of  this 
plant  are  cultivated  in  gardens,  the  Intybus  and  the 
Endivia;  the  one  for  medicinal  purposes,  and  the 
other  for  the  uses  of  the  kitchen.  Of  the  last,  which 
alone  falls  within  the  scope  of  our  work,  there  are 
several  varieties,  the  best  of  which  are  the  endive, 
properly  so  called,  the  Celestine,  and  the  always- 
white.  The  first  of  these  is  the  most  prolific,  and 
the  second  the  most  tender  and  fittest  for  salads. 

In  stiff  clays  and  poor  sands  succory  is  a  feeble 
plant ;  in  dry  soils  it  becomes  tough  and  disagreea- 


182  GARDENING 

bly  bitter;  and  in  ground  manured  with  fermenting 
dung,  or  too  abundantly,  its  flavour  is  both  altered 
and  degraded.  The  soil  most  favourable  to  it  is  a 
light,  and  fresh,  and  moist  loam,  thoroughly  dug, 
moderately  manured,  and  copiously  watered.  This 
last  circumstance  is  not  only  essential  to  its  germi- 
nation and  development,  but  is  the  best  remedy 
against  the  disposition,  always  shown  by  the  plant 
in  hot  weather,  to  run  into  seed.  An  auxiliary 
means  to  secure  this  end  is  to  tie  up  the  heads  so  as 
to  give  them  the  form  of  a  cone,  which,  by-the- 
way,  is  the  method  also  employed  for  bleaching  the 
plant.  This  is  done  by  two  lyings  (one  near  the 
roots  of  the  leaves,  the  othet  near  the  tops  or 
points),  and  which  should  be  made  in  succession, 
and  at  the  distance  of  a  few  days  from  each  other. 

The  seeds  of  this  plant  are  generally  and  best 
sown  in  small  beds.  When  the  plants  attain  the 
height  of  three  inches,  transfer  them  to  the  place 
where  they  are  to  'stand,  and  set  them  in  rows  at 
the  distance  of  ten  or  twelve  inches  apart.  Keep 
them  free  from  weeds,  water  them  frequently,  and, 
when  full  grown,  tie  up  the  heads,  or  cover  them 
with  earthen  pots  reversed.  The  first  and  the  last 
crops  (those  of  spring  and  autumn)  are  best,  but, 
with  proper  care,  good  ones  may  be  had  at  midsum- 
mer ;  in  this  case,  however,  your  plantation  must 
have  a  northern  exposition.  After  tying,  keep  the 
heads  erect,  for  such  as  lean  are  apt  to  burst. 

The  green  curled  endive  is  the  best  for  fall  plant- 
ing, being  the  hardiest  of  all  the  different  races. 
The  winter  management  of  this  plant  does  not  dif- 
fer from  that  of  celery. 

CORN  (Zea). — This  is  a  native  of  America,  was 
cultivated  from  time  immemorial  by  the  aborigines, 
and  was  introduced  into  Europe  about  three  centu- 
ries ago.  After  a  cultivation  so  long  continued  and 
so  general,  the  great  number  of  varieties  it  now  pre- 
sents cannot  be  thought  extraordinary.  These  are 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  183 

distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  colour  or  the 
size  of  the  grain,  the  number  of  rows  on  the  cob, 
the  length  of  time  they  respectively  take  in  ripen- 
ing, and  the  degree  of  hardness  acquired  by  them. 
Some  are  white  and  others  black,  some  yellow  and 
others  brown,  red,  or  violet,  &c.  Some  have  cobs 
twelve  inches  long,  studied  with  twelve  rows  of 
large  grains,  while  others  have  only  six  rows  on  a 
cob  three  inches  long,  and  covered  with  grains 
even  smaller  than  peppercorns.  Some  are  five 
months  in  ripening,  while  others  ripen  in  forty 
days ;  and,  again,  some  are  hard  and  even  flinty, 
while  others  are  soft  and  succulent,  and  cannot  be 
long  preserved  but  by  means  of  artificial  heat.  It 
so  happens  that,  of  this  great  variety,  the  sorts  least 
valuable  in  commerce  are  those  most  sought  after 
in  garden  culture,  viz.,  the  small,  from  its  ripening 
soon,  and  the  soft,  from  its  greater  tenderness  and 
sweetness.  It  is,  therefore,  of  these  last  varieties 
only  that  we  shall  speak. 

Observation  has  shown  that,  in  raising  Indian 
corn,  something  is  gained,  1st,  by  taking  your  seed 
from  plants  which  have  each  ripened  two  or  more 
ears  ;  2d,  by  rejecting  the  grains  growing  on  either 
extremity  of  the  ears,  and  employing  only  the  cen- 
tral grains  ;  and,  3d,  by  steeping  these  in  a  solution 
of  nitre  for  twenty-four  hours  before  sowing.  With 
regard  to  this  operation  (sowing),  one  of  two  modes 
may  be  adopted ;  either  score  your  ground  (which 
\ye  take  for  granted  has  been  well  dug  and  manu- 
red) at  the  distance  of  three  feet  and  a  half  both 
ways,  and  plant  at  the  points  of  intersection  (three 
grains  at  each),  or  score  only  one  way  (east  and 
west),  at  the  distance  of  four  feet,  and  plant  in  the 
rows  single  grains  eight  or  ten  inches  from  each 
other.  Hoe  every  ten  days  after  the  corn  shows 
itself  till  it  begins  to  set,  and  at  each  hoeing  draw 
up  a  little  earth  round  the  roots  of  the  plants ;  this 
is  what  is  called  hilling,  and  is  a  necessary  part 


184  GARDENING. 

of  the  treatment.  Pulverized  gvnsum,  applied  in 
small  quantities  to  the  hills  at  the  !irst  and  second 
hoeings,  is  found  to  be  useful.  The  same  remark 
may  be  made  of  wood  aslies,  used  in  the  same  way, 
but  in  larger  quantity.  To  supply  seeds  for  the 
next  year,  cut  off  the  tops  of  a  few  of  the  best 
plants  the  moment  the  ears  fill.*  The  effect  of 
this  is  to  let  in  the  air  and  sun  on  the  ears,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  to  concentrate  in  these  the  remaining 
juices  of  the  plant. 

THE  WATER  CRESS. — There  are  two  plants  of  this 
name,  belonging  to  different  genera  ;  the  Cardamine, 
of  the  Cruciform,  and  the  Ilortensis,  of  the  Passerage 
genus ;  the  first  includes  two  useful  species :  the 
water  cress,  and  the  cress  of  the  meadows ;  the 
other  has  several  varieties,  as  the  golden,  the  cress 
of  Brazil,  that  of  India,  that  of  Mexico,  that  of  Para, 
all  better  than  the  parent  plant,  and  between  which 
there  appears  to  be  but  little  choice.  The  qualities 
and  uses  of  both  kinds  are  the  same ;  their  taste  is 
hot  and  piquant,  and  they  are  principally  employed 
in  the  composition  of  salads.  Lasteyrie  tells  us 
that  in  Germany  great  pains  are  taken  to  propagate 
the  water  cress,  and  gives  the  following  account  of 
their  mode  of  doing  it :  "  The  water  (says  he)  most 
favourable  for  its  production  is  that  in  which  it  grows 
naturally,  and  which  in  winter  preserves  heat  enough 
to  prevent  it  from  freezing.  The  situation  on  which 
to  form  a  cress  plantation  ought  to  have  a  little  slope 
or  inclination ;  because  water,  in  a  state  of  repose, 
alters  the  flavour  of  the  plant.  Having  chosen  the 
place,  it  is  formed  into  heights  and  hollows  alter- 
nately ;  the  latter  are  destined  for  the  cresses,  and 
the  former  for  the  culture  of  other  plants.  The 
size  of  the  hollows  is  made  to  depend  on  the  quan- 
tity of  water  you  can  bring  into  them,  and  the  de- 

*  Decidedly  a  bad  practice.  Cut  up  the  whole  stock,  or 
leave  the  whole  to  mature  the  seed.  Either  mode  is  better  than 
topping. — J.  B. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  185 

mand  for  the  article  to  be  raised.  If  the  soil  of  the 
hollows  is  not  sufficiently  rich,  better  earth  must  be 
brought  to  amend  it ;  and,  if  the  bottom  be  marshy, 
you  throw  over  it  some  inches  of  sand.  Your  next 
step  is  to  cover  it  with  water  for  some  hours,  after 
which  you  drain  and  sow,  or  plant.  At  the  end  of 
a  few  days  you  let  in  the  water  and  drain  as  before, 
and  continue  these  processes  until  the  cresses  ap- 
pear, if  sown,  or  until  they  have  taken  root,  if  plant- 
ed. The  quantity  of  water  let  in  is  always  to  be 
regulated  by  the  growth  of  the  plant ;  for,  though  it 
cannot  live  but  in  water,  it  will  not  bear  to  be  long 
covered  with  it.  Planting  is  always  surer  than  sow- 
ing, and  is  therefore  preferred.  The  time  for  this  is 
either  March  or  August.  The  distance  between  the 
plants  should  not  be  less  than  ten  or  fifteen  inches. 
Moving  the  earth  about  their  roots  with  the  hoe, 
from  time  to  time,  is  useful ;  but  for  the  rest  (hav- 
ing once  taken  root),  no  farther  care  is  necessary. 
A  cress  plantation  is  in  full  bearing  the  second  year, 
and  lasts  a  long  time.  When  it  begins  to  fail,  it 
may  be  renewed  by  taking  off  a  foot  of  the  surface 
soil  of  the  old  beds,  and  replacing  it  with  good  and 
fresh  earth.  In  winter  the  beds  are  covered  more 
deeply  with  water,  which  protects  the  plant  against 
the  frost." 

The  same  writer  informs  us  how  they  manage 
their  cress  plantations  near  Paris.  "  Having  there 
(he  says)  no  running  water,  they  cultivate  it  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  wells,  and  water  it  every  day. 
The  cress  vegetates  promptly,  but  becomes  acrid  in 
its  taste.  They  accordingly  prefer  sowing  to  plant- 
ing, because,  if  cut  when  only  six  inches  high,  and 
treated  in  all  respects  as  an  annual,  it  has  least  of 
this  pungency." 

THE  GARDEN  CRESS  requires  a  moist  and  well-la- 
boured soil,  and,  if  possible,  a  cool  and  shady  situa- 
tion. The  north  side  of  a  wall  or  fence  is  its  true 
place  in  a  garden,  and,  if  frequently  and  abundantly 


186  GARDENING. 

watered,  it  will  there  arrive  at  all  the  perfection  of 
which  it  is  susceptible. 

CUCUMBER  (Cucumis). — This  genus  of  plants  in- 
cludes many  species,  varying  in  foliage,  and  in  the 
size  and  shape  of  their  fruit.  The  more  common 
and  useful  of  these  are  the  bouquet,  or  cluster  cu- 
cumber, and  the  white,  which  are  best  fitted  for 
frames ;  the  yellow  and  the  parrot,  which  are  most 
robust,  productive,  and  best  flavoured,  and  the  green, 
which,  being  nearest  the  wild  state,  is  the  fittest  for 
pickling.  In  our  climate,  this  plant  is  raised  in  every 
description  of  soil,  and  with  a  small  degree  of  labour. 
The  ground  being  dug  and  smoothed,  line  it  into 
squares  of  six  feet.  In  the  centre  of  each  dig  a 
hole  about  fourteen  inches  deep ;  fill  this  with  well- 
rotted  dung,  and  sow  on  it  five  or  six  cucumber 
seeds  ;*  cover  these  with  mould,  and,  when  they  are 
grown  to  have  a  rough  leaf,  select  two  for  each  hill, 
and  draw  out  the  remainder.  You  have  now  to 
choose  between  three  methods  of  treating  the  plant, 
each  of  which  has  many  and  warm  advocates.  1st. 
Permitting  it  to  regulate  itself  with  regard  to  the 
production  and  the  length  of  the  stem;  3d.  The 
pinching  system,  which,  by  shortening  the  stem, 
compels  it  to  push  lateral  branches ;  and,  3d.  The 
plan  of  Rozier,  which,  by  burying  the  runner  at 
short  distances,  avoids  the  hazard  of  pinching  or 
cutting,  and,  at  the  same  time,  ojbtains  new  roots 
from  the  buried  joints.  Of  the  three  methods,  the 
last  has,  in  our  opinion,  the  preference ;  but,  as 
others  may  come  to  a  different  conclusion,  we  will 
point  out  the  time,  the  mode,  and  the.  effect  of  short- 
ening the  stem.  Soon  after  the  plant  acquires  a  sec- 
ond rough  leaf,  you  will  discover  about  the  foot  of 
it  a  bud  which,  if  left  to  itself,  would  become  a  run- 
ner. This  must  be  pinched  off,  taking  care,  howev- 

*  Twenty  is  a  better  number.  Plants  can  be  more  readily 
diminished  than  increased,  and  seeds  cost  little  or  nothing. — J.  B. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  187 

er,  not  to  wound  the  joint  from  which  it  proceeds. 
The  effect  of  this  pinching  will  be  the  production  of 
side  shoots,  which  in  their  turn  must  also  be  pinched 
off,  leaving  only  two  eyes  on  each,  destined  to  be- 
come future  runners,  and  so  to  be  conducted  that 
they  will  not  shade  or  crowd  each  other. 

The  sowing,  of  which  we  have  here  spoken,  can- 
not be  safely  made  in  our  climate  till  the  10th  of 
May.  For  the  fall  and  pickling  crops,  you  must 
sow  the  first  or  second  week  of  July.  The  treat- 
ment of  these  is  in  all  respects  like  that  prescribed 
for  the  first  crop  in  the  open  air,  excepting  that  the 
pinching  part  of  it  is  altogether  omitted,  as  at  this 
season  the  vigorous  vegetation  (which  this  opera- 
tion is  intended  to  correct)  is  much  diminished. 

It  now  remains  to  say  a  few  words  with  regard  to 
early  cucumbers.  To  obtain  these  we  must  have 
recourse  to  artificial  heat ;  and  with  the  less  reluc- 
tance, as,  of  all  plants,  the  cucumber  is  that  with 
which  it  best  agrees.  To  this  end,  therefore,  scoop 
out  as  many  large  turnips  as  you  propose  to  have 
hills ;  fill  these  with  good  garden  mould  ;  sow  in  each 
three  or  four  seeds,  and  plunge  them  into  a  hotbed 
(as  described  in  the  article  Asparagus).  When  the 
runners  show  themselves,  spare  them,  or  pinch 
them,  or  bury  them,  as  you  may  think  best,  and  on 
the  10th  of  May  transfer  them  to  the  beds  where 
they  are  to  stand*.  The  advantage  of  the  scooped 
turnip  as  a  seedbed  over  pots  or  vases,  will  now 
appear,  for,  instead  of  the  ordinary  difficulty  of  sep- 
arating the  mass  of  earth  and  the  plant  from  the  pot 
which  contained  them,  and  without  injury  to  either, 
we  reinter  both  pot  and  plant,  and  even  find  in  the 
one  an  additional  nutriment  for  the  other.  The  sub- 
sequent treatment  does  not  differ  at  all  from  that  of 
plants  sown  and  cultivated  in  the  open  air. 

A  debate  has  long  existed  on  the  preference  to  be 
given  to  old  or  to  new  seeds,  and  which,  like  many 
others,  appears  to  be  interminable.  The  Abbe  Ro- 
15 


188  GARDENING. 

zier  and  his  followers  think  that  the  most  vigorous 
plants,  of  all  species  and  kinds,  are  the  best;  and 
accordingly  prefer  new  seeds,  because  more  likely 
to  produce  such  than  old  ones  :  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  their  opponents  maintain  that  plants  may  have 
too  much  vigour  as  well  as  too  little ;  and  that, 
whenever  an  excess  of  vigour  exists,  according  to 
all  vegetable  analogy,  it  shows  itself  in  the  produc- 
tion of  stems  and  leaves,  and  not  in  that  of  flowers 
and  fruits ;  whence  they  conclude  that  old  cucum- 
ber seeds  (like  those  of  all  the  rest  of  the  cucurbi- 
taceae  family)  are  better  than  new,  because  less  vig- 
orous. The  best  practical  use  to  be  made  of  this 
controversy  is  to  sow  old  seeds  in  the  spring,  when 
vegetation  is  most  powerful,. and  new  ones  in  July, 
when  it  begins  to  abate. 

GARLIC  (Allium). — A  genus  of  plants  found  grow- 
ing spontaneously  in  very  different  and  even  oppo- 
site climates.  Jollyclerc  says  it  grows  without 
care  in  Sicily  and  in  the  south  of  France,  and  the 
continuator  of  Cook's  Journal  informs  us  that  it  was 
found  in  the  open  fields  and  forests  of  Kamschatka. 
Its  species  are  many.  Lamarck  mentions  thirty- 
nine,  and  Wildenow  fifty-eight,  the  principal  of 
which  are  the  onion,  the  leek,  the  eschalot,  and  the 
cive. 

The  onion  is  the  Allium  Cepa  of  the  botanists,  and, 
like  other  plants  which  have  been  long  subjected  to 
cultivation,  has  many  varieties,  distinguished  by 
colour,  size,  and  taste,  and  one  of  them  by  organi- 
zation (the  Canadense),  which  carries  its  fruit  on  its 
head  in  the  place  of  flowers.  Of  these  varieties 
the  red  is  the  largest,  but  most  acrid ;  the  pale  red 
and  the  yellow  are  less  in  size  than  the  red,  and 
somewhat  milder ;  but  the  white  (of  Spain  and 
Florence),  though  the  smallest,  are  the  mildest,  the 
soonest  fit  for  use,  and  the  best  for  keeping.  They 
are  eaten  like  apples,  and  without  any  wry  faces. 
On  analysis,  they  are  found  to  possess  less  of  those 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  189 

elements  (oil  and  sulphur)  which  give  to  the  com- 
mon onion  its  peculiar  taste  and  smell.  Light  and 
frequent  waterings  have  the  effect  of  diminishing 
this  odour.* 

A  rich  moist  sand  is  the  soil  most  favourable  to 
the  onion ;  and  "  when  to  this,"  says  Bosc,  "  we 
can  add  a  long  and  hot  summer,  their  development 
is  prodigious.  I  have  seen  them  a  foot  in  diameter, 
and  have  heard  of  others  which  were  larger.  But 
it  is  to  the  south  of  France,  to  Sicily,  to  the  isles  of 
Greece,  and  particularly  to  Egypt,  where  we  must 
go  to  see  the  onion  in  its  most  improved  state." 
In  clay  or  stony  soils,  or  pure  sand,  the  onion  does 
not  prosper ;  it  becomes  small  and  acrid,  and  expe- 
rience shows  that  fermenting  or  half-rotted  dung  is 
by  no  means  favourable  to  it. 

It  is  propagated  either  by  the  seed  or  by  the 
bulbs.f  In  the  first  case  you  sow  in  shallow  drills, 
twelve  or  fourteen  inches  apart,  cover  with  mould, 
and  when  the  plants  come  up,  thin  them,  so  that 
they  may  stand  three  or  four  inches  from  each  oth- 
er. The  sooner  this  is  done  in  the  spring  after  the 
earth  has  acquired  a  temperature  favourable  to  ve- 
getation, the  better  will  be  your  crop.  It  only  re- 
mains to  keep  the  earth  loose  and  clean  about  the 
roots,  and,  if  the  vegetation  be  too  vigorous,  to 
break  down  the  tops,  so  as  to  determine  the  juices 
to  the  bulbs.  la  the  other  case  you  employ  the 
small  and  half-grown  onion  of  the  preceding  fall 
instead  of  seed.  In  this  consists  all  the  difference 
of  the  two  modes.  The  Canadense  Variety  is,  we 
believe,  always  managed  in  this  way. 

To  preserve  onions,  of  whatever  variety,  through 
the  winter,  they  are  best  formed  into  ropes  (tied  to 
each  other),  and  kept  in  a  dry  and  moderately  warm 

*  Cours  d'Agriculture. 

t  The  Tartars  propagate  them  by  cutting.  They  slit  the  bulb 
downward,  and  leave  to  each  cutting  a  portion  of  the  fibrous 
roots.  Cours  d'Agriculture. 


190  GARDENING. 

cellar.  A  few  of  the  largest  of  these  are  set  out  in 
the  spring  for  seed ;  and,  when  this  is  perfectly  ripe, 
the  stems  are  cut  and  the  seed  left  in  the  capsules 
for  use;  as  experience  shows  that,  preserved  in 
this  way,  it  retains  its  germinating  power  much 
longer  than  if  threshed  immediately  after  ripening. 

The  leek  is  the  Allium  Porrum  of  the  botanists, 
and  a  native  of  the  southern  parts  of  Europe.  In 
Spain  it  has  become  one  of  the  scourges  of  agricul- 
ture, as  the  fields  are  literally  infested  with  it.  In 
no  country  is  this  plant  eaten  alone,  excepting  per- 
haps in  Spain,  and  the  more  southern  provinces  of 
France ;  but  in  many  countries  it  is  employed  in 
the  composition  of  soups.  The  culture  of  it  resem- 
bles entirely  that  of  the  onion,  excepting  only  that 
it  requires  more  water.  Of  its  many  varieties  we 
have  seen  only  the  long  and  the  short.  The  former 
is  the  milder  of  the  two  ;  the  latter  the  more  bul- 
bous, acrid,  and  hardy. 

The  eschalot  (Allium  Ascalonicum)  is  said  to  be  a 
native  of  Palestine.  Of  this  there  are  three  sub- 
varieties,  two  of  which  are  generally  found  in  gar- 
dens, the  large  and  the  small.  The  bottoms  of 
these,  when  the  plant  is  ripe,  is  composed  of  sev- 
eral bulbs  of  different  sizes,  under  a  common  cov- 
ering, the  larger  of  which  are  taken  for  culinary 
uses,  and  the  smaller  kept  for  planting.  The  cul- 
ture of  these  bulbs  does  not  differ  from  that  of  the 
common,  or  of  the  Canadense  varieties  of  the  onion. 

The  cive  (Cepula)  is  a  small  plant  much  used  in 
soups  and  salads.  Of  this  there  are  three  sub- 
varieties,  the  Cepula  Minor,  Cepula  Britannica,  and 
Cepula  Major.  The  bulbs  of  all  grow  in  clusters, 
and  the  plant  is  usually  propagated  by  separating 
these  into  small  tufts  (half  a  dozen  of  the  roots  to- 
gether) every  third  or  fourth  year,  and  setting  them 
out  in  borders  or  in  beds  eight  or  ten  inches  apart. 
The  leaves  only  are  used,  and,  to  have  these  tender, 
they  must  be  cut  often.  In  the  fall  and  on  the  ap- 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  191 

proach  of  frost,  clip  them  close  to  the  ground,  and 
cover  the  roots  with  dung  or  stable  litter.  They 
require  little  if  any  other  care,  and  will  last  many 
years. 

LETTUCE  (Lactuca). — Of  the  native  country  of  this 
plant  we  are  not  sufficiently  assured.  Lamarck 
thinks  that  the  Quercina  of  Linnaeus  (a  product  of 
an  island  in  the  Baltic)  is  the  type  of  the  genus, 
while  Rozier  regards  the  Scareola  of  the  same  au- 
thor as  entitled  to  that  distinction.  Of  the  known 
species  there  are  twenty-one  ;*  the  most  remarka- 
ble of  which  are  the  Capitata,  the  Romana,  and  the 
Spinosa.  The  first  and  second  are  found  in  all 
kitchen  gardens,  while  the  third  is  rather  a  medici- 
nal than  a  culinary  plant,  and  principally  useful  for 
its  narcotic  powers,  which  are  said  to  be  little  in- 
ferior to  those  of  opium.  The  varieties  of  the  Cap- 
itata  and  Romana  have,  by  long  culture,  been  mul- 
tiplied to  the  number  of  one  hundred  and  twenty, 
and  are  separated  by  lines  so  nearly  imperceptible 
and  so  difficult  to  characterize,  that  botanists  have 
found  it  convenient  to  arrange  them  into  series,  the 
principal  of  which  are,  1st,  the  Head  Lettuce;  2d, 
the  Curled  Lettuce  ;  and,  3d,  the  Lettuce  with  open, 
straight,  and  erect  leaves.  These  are  again  sub- 
divided by  gardeners,  according  to  the  season  most 
favourable  to  the  plants  respectively,  as  spring, 
summer,  fall,  or  winter  lettuce;  and  as  this  view  of 
them  is  likely  to  be  best  known  and  most  useful, 
we  shall  employ  it  in  what  we  have  to  say  on  the 
subject. 

The  varieties  known  by  the  names  of  the  brown 
Dutch,  Capuchin  green,  and  grand  admiral  (being 
the  most  hardy),  are  those  which  should  be  sown 
in  the  fall,  to  remain  in  the  ground  through  the  win- 
ter, and  vegetate  early  in  the  spring.  If  the  soil  be 

*  Brisseau  Mirbel.  One  of  these  species  is  American  (Lac- 
tuca Elongata  of  Dr.  Muhlenberg). 


192  GARDENING 

clayey,  the  beds  should  be  thoroughly  manured  and 
dug  in  the  month  of  October,  and  thrown  up  into 
four-feet  ridges,  well  trenched,  and  with  an  inclina- 
tion on  one  of  their  sides  or  corners  to  carry  off 
superfluous  moisture.  The  seed  should  now  be 
sown  and  covered  with  a  short-toothed  rake,  and 
subsequently,  as  the  frost  approaches,  with  a  light 
layer  of  stable  litter.  This  should  be  removed  in 
the  spring,  and  the  surfaces  of  the  beds  loosened 
with  an  iron-toothed  rake.  The  first  vegetation 
that  shows  itself  will  be  that  of  the  lettuce,  and,  if 
too  thickly  sown,  the  surplus  plants  should  be  taken 
up,  and  set  out  in  rows  for  head-salad.  In  warm 
and  sandy  soils  the  treatment  is  the  same,  with  the 
exception  that  the  trenching  and  ridging  will  be  un- 
necessary :  but,  in  every  kind  of  soil,  the  precocity 
of  the  crop  will  be  best  assured  by  a  temporary  wall 
of  straw  or  cornstalks,  held  together  by  a  few  stakes 
and  wattles,  and  so  placed  as  to  protect  the  beds 
from  north  and  northwest  winds. 

The  varieties  most  approved  for  spring  culture 
are  the  white,  the  green,  the  spotted  coss,  the  Sile- 
sia, the  Great  Mogul,  and  the  India;  for  summer 
use,  the  white  Dutch,  the  imperial,  the  Aleppo,  and 
the  green  Egyptian  ;*  and  for  that  of  autumn,  as 
already  stated,  the  white  coss,  the  brown  Dutch, 
the  grand  admiral,  and  the  New-Zealand.  We  need 
scarcely  remark,  that  the  straight-leafed  sort  is  best 
cultivated  in  broadcast,  and  does  not  require  trans- 
planting, but  that  the  curled  and  head  lettuce  cannot 
succeed  without  it.  In  summer  culture  this  may  be 
especially  necessary,  as  the  lettuce,  like  the  cab 
bage,  has  at  this  season  a  strong  propensity  to  run 

*  Millar  says  that  the  white  coss  obtained  the  preference  over 
all  other  branches  of  the  family  till  the  introduction  of  the 
green  Egyptian.  This  is  probably  the  variety  mentioned  by 
Oliver  and  Brugiere  as  forming  the  delight  of  the  Egyptians, 
and  which  among  them  is  eaten  by  all  ranks  at  all  hours.  See 
Memoire  sur  1'Egypte. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  ]  93 

to  seed,  which  can  only  be  effectually  checked  by 
transplanting.  The  plants  should  stand  at  the  dis 
tance  of  ten  or  twelve  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 
The  curled  sort,  when  the  heads  begin  tc  spread, 
should  be  tied  up,  and  will  then  blanch  finely;  but  it 
must  also  be  noticed  that  the  effect  of  this  compres- 
sion is  to  hasten  the  progress  of  vegetation,  and,  of 
course,  to  precipitate  the  seeding. 

All  the  varieties  of  the  three  series  will  grow  well 
in  hotbeds,  but  the  Romana  species  is  preferred  for 
this  culture,  1st,  because  it  bears  squeezing  or 
crowding  the  best,  and.  3d,  because,  by  throwing  up 
erect  leaves,  it  occupies  less  room  under  the  frames 
than  either  of  the  other  sorts. 

THE  MELON  (Cucumis  Melo), — This  is  one  of  the 
many  useful  and  delicious  presents  furnished  by 
Asia  to  the  rest  of  the  world.  There  are  but  two 
species  ;  the  melon  with  a  rough  or  embroidered 
coat,  and  that  with  a  thin  and  smooth  skin.  The 
first  is  called  the  musk,  from  its  peculiar  flavour, 
and  the  other,  from  its  thin  and  abundant  juices, 
the  watermelon.  Of  each  of  these  species  there 
are  many  varieties,  differing  in  shape  and  size,  and 
in  the  colour  of  the  rind  and  of  the  flesh.  The  most 
approved  of  the  muskmelon  species  are  the  cante- 
lope,  the  citron,  the  nutmeg,  and  the  Persian;  and 
of  the  watermelon,  the  Carolina,  the  Maltese,  the 
Candia,  and  the  Chat6  or  Egyptian.* 

Both  species  and  all  the  varieties  succeed  best 
in  a  hot  climate  and  sandy  soil,  and  in  these  their 
culture  is  easy  and  alike,  and  their  product  abun- 
dant; nor  is  it  to  be  complained  of  here,  where  our 

*  Prosper  Alpin  says  that  hg  sas  seen  watermelons  so  large 
in  Egypt,  that  three  or  four  formed  the  ordinary  load  of  a  cam- 
el. Of  this  species  there  are  seven  known  varieties,  according 
to  Brisseau  Mirbel.  The  Chate  is  one  of  these,  and  the  Egyp- 
tian mode  of  using  it  is  to  make  a  hole  in  the  side,  through 
which,  by  means  of  a  stick,  they  reduce  the  pulp  to  a  liquid. 
This  ia  then  poured  into  a  cup  and  drank. 


194  GARDENING. 

summers  are  frequently  long,  and  hot,  an  1  dry.  To 
succeed  in  raising  them  for  market,  the  Honfleur 
method,  as  Described  by  M.  Calvel,  may  be  employ- 
ed. Select  a  spot  well  defended  against  the  north 
wind,  and  open  to  the  sun  throughout  the  day.  If 
such  is  not  to  be  found  in  your  garden,  create  a 
temporary  and  artificial  shelter  producing  the  same 
effect.  At  the  end  of  March,  form  holes  two  feet  in 
diameter,  and  distant  from  each  other  seven  feet 
and  a  half;  fill  these  with  horse-dung  and  litter,  or 
a  mixture  of  mould,  dung,  and  sand.  At  the  end  of 
twenty  days,  cover  the  holes  which  have  been  thus 
filled  with  hand  glasses.  When  the  heat  rises  to 
36  of  Reaumur,  sow  the  seeds  four  inches  apart ;  and 
when  the  plants  have  acquired  two  or  three  leaves, 
pinch  off  the  end  of  the  branch  or  runner.*  This 
will  produce  lateral  branches,  which  must  again  be 
pinched  off  so  soon  as  they  respectively  attain  the 
length  of  ten  inches.  When  the  plant  has  out- 
grown the  glass,  the  latter  becomes  useless  and 
may  be  removed ;  but,  should  the  weather  be  wet  or 
chilly,  substitute  coverings  of  clean  straw  for  that 
of  the  glasses,  until  the  young  plant  becomes  strong 
enough  to  bear  the  open  air.  Two  or  three  melons 
only  are  left  to  each  vine,  and  under  each  of  these 
is  placed  a  slate,  without  which  the  upper  and  under 
sides  will  not  ripen  together.  Two  months  are  re- 
quired to  mature  them.  The  people  of  Honfleur  at- 
tribute their  success  in  melon-raising  to  the  sea  va- 
pour which  surrounds  them,  and  to  the  saline  parti- 

*  There  is  much  controversy  among  gardeners  and  savants  on 
this  point ;  nor  are  the  pinchers  entirely  united  in  opinion  how  far 
this  practice  should  be  carried.  Some  content  themselves  wiln 
taking  off  the  cotyledons  when  the  plant  has  acquired  three  or 
four  leaves,  while  others  take  off.  the  principal  branches  at  the 
first  eye  above  the  fruit,  and  suppress  all  the  secondary  brancn 
es,  male  flowers,  and  tendrils.  "  These  operations,"  says  M 
Bosc,  "  are  founded  in  bad  reasoning.  A  cutting  which  sup 
presses  two  thirds  of  the  plant  at  once  cannot  fail  to  disorgan 
ize  what  remai  us." 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  195 

cles  contained  i  i  it ;  an  advantage  to  be  anywhere 
commanded  by  dissolving  a  little  salt  in  the  water 
employed  to  moisten  them. 

If  we  want  melons  at  a  period  earlier  than  this 
method  will  give  them,  we  must  employ  a  higher 
degree  and  longer  continuance  of  artificial  heat;  in 
a  word,  we  must  resort  to  hotbeds  ;  and  in  these  the 
point  most  important,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the 
most  difficult  of  attainment,  is  to  secure  a  certain 
degree  of  heat,  and  no  more,  throughout  the  whole 
process.  To  lessen  the  difficulty  in  this  case,  gar- 
deners who  understand  their  trade  make  choice  of 
those  varieties  which  have  the  thinnest  skins  and 
the  least  bulk ;  as  experience  proves  that,  other 
things  being  equal,  they  require  less  heat*  than 
those  of  thicker  rinds  and  greater  size,  and  are,  of 
course,  less  subject  to  some  of  the  accidents  to 
which  this  species  of  culture  is  exposed.  In  choo- 
sing the  seeds,  those  of  the  last  year  are  only  to  be 
used,  because  they  are  of  quicker  vegetation  than 
old  ones,  and,  accordingly,  best  fulfil  the  intention  of 
the  hotbed,  which  is  to  give  earlj^frmt.  Another 
practice  conducive  to  the  safety  of  the  plants  is  to 
sow  the  seed  in  small  pots,  and  then  to  plunge  them 
into  a  hotbed.  If  the  heat  be  deficient,  they  are,  in 
this  case,  made  no  worse  than  they  would  have 
been  if  sown  directly  in  the  bed ;  and  if  it  be  ex- 
cessive, it  is  only  necessary  to  raise  the  pots,  with- 
out in  the  smallest  degree  disturbing  the  plant. 
These  things  being  premised,  it  only  remains  to 
show  what  ought  to  be  the  subsequent  management 
after  the  seed  has  been  sown  and  the  pots  placed 
under  the  frames.  One  of  the  most  important  points 
now  to  be  observed  is  sufficiently  to  ventilate  the 

*  No  one  is  ignorant  that  surfaces  augment  as  the  squares, 
and  that  solids  follow  the  proportion  of  cubes.  If,  for  instance, 
the  surface  of  the  melon  be  four,  the  quantity  of  its  matter  will 
be  eight ;  and  if  the  surface  of  another  melon  be  nine,  its  matter 
will  be  equal  to  t  venty-seven. 


196  GARDEWING. 

bed,  as  well  before  as  after  the  plants  show  them- 
selves. This  should  be  done  at  midday  and  in  sun- 
shine, and  as  often  as  a  necessity  for  it  shall  be  in- 
dicated by  an  accumulation  of  steam  under  the 
glasses.  At  night  these  (the  glasses)  should  be  care 
fully  covered  with  matting.  These  two  prelimina- 
ries (ventilation  in  the  day  and  covering  at  night) 
being  carefully  observed,  your  plants  will  soon  show 
themselves  in  a  vigorous  and  healthy  state,  and 
may  be  kept  in  that  condition  by  a  continuation  of 
the  same  means,  and  by  moderately  moistening  the 
earth  when  it  shall  appear  to  have  beeome  too  dry. 
The  water  employed  should  be  of  the  temperature 
of  the  air  under  the  frames  ;  and,  to  secure  this,  it  is 
well  to  keep  a  supply  of  it  in  a  pot  placed  in  a  cor- 
ner of  the  hotbed.  In  about  a  month,  the  plants 
thus  raised  will  be  fit  for  transferring  to  a  second 
and  larger  hotbed,  constructed  like  the  preceding,* 
with  the  exception  that  the  mass  of  dung  must  now 
be  greater,  and  that,  after  earthing,  the  bed  should 
not  be  less  than  three  and  a  half  or  four  feet  in 
depth.  The  plants,  with  the  earth  in  which  they 
grow,  are  now  to  be  taken  from  the  pots  ;  an  opera- 
tion in  which  practice  only  will  make  us  expert,  and 
which  consists  in  placing  the  neck  of  the  plant  be- 
tween the  first  and  second  finger  of  the  left  hand, 
reversing  the  pot,  and  gently  striking  its  sides  until 
the  earth  be  disengaged.  The  discharged  mass  is 
then  placed  in  a  hole  previously  prepared  in  the 
square,  where  it  is  intended  the  plant  shall  ripen  and 
produce.  The  male  flowers  should  not  be  disturb- 
ed. When  they  have  fulfilled  the  intentions  of  na- 
ture, they  will  fall  of  themselves  ;  and  if  the  branches 
be  vigorous  and  long,  stretch  them  carefully  over  a 
level  surface,  and  bury  every  fourth  or  fifth  joint. 
This  is  best  done  by  means  of  a  wooden  crotchet. 
The  objects  of  pinching  or  shortening  the  stem  are 

*  See  article  Asparagus  for  the  formation  of  hotbeds. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  197 

thus  completely  fulfilled,  without  any  of  the  risk 
which  attends  that  op<  ration,  and  with  advantages 
peculiar  to  this  method  ;  since,  wherever  the  plant 
is  buried,  new  roots  are  formed  for  the  better  nutri- 
tion of  the  stem  and  the  fruit.  Melons  should  be 
permitted  to  acquire  a  bulk  not  less  than  one  inch 
in  diameter  before  you  venture  on  reducing  their 
number,  and  no  reduction  of  the  leaves  should  be 
made  at  any  time ;  for  from  the  size,  number,  and 
thickness  of  these;  and  the  smallness  and  little  ex- 
tension of  the  roots,  it  is  evident  that  this  plant  de- 
rives more  of  its  nutriment  from  the  atmosphere 
than  from  the  earth.  If  the  weather  be  dry,  multi- 
ply the  hoeings,  but  water  sparingly,  as  many  ex- 
periments show  that  water  alters  the  juices  of  the 
fruit,  and  that,  though  it  may  augment  its  quantity, 
it  never  fails  to  degrade  its  quality.  The  ripeness 
of  the  muskmelon  is  known  by  its  colour  and  its 
odour,  and  by  the  drying  of  the  stem  where  it  at 
taches  itself  to  the  fruit.*  The  watermelon  fur- 
nishes neither  of  these  signs,  but  affords  another 
peculiar  to  itself,  a  hollow  sound  on  being  struck  on 
the  rind,  the  result  of  an  actual  hollowness,  begin- 
ning and  increasing  with  its  maturity.  The  seeds 
of  both  species  are  best  preserved  by  drying  in  the 
shade,  and  in  a  portion  of  their  own  juice. 

EGG  PLANT. — MELONGENA  (Solarium  Melongena  of 
Lin.). — Of  this  plant  the  principal  varieties  are  the 
long  purple  and  the  long  yellow,  each  of  which 
has  a  sub-variety  which  is  round.  Like  other  plants 
of  tropical  origin,  it  requires  a  dry  soil  and  warm 
weather,  and  with  these  advantages  grows  vigor- 
ously and  bears  abundantly.  To  have  early  plants, 
sow  the  seeds  in  a  hotbed  towards  the  end  of  March, 
and,  as  soon  as  the  frosts  are  over,  transfer  the  young 
plants  to  the  open  ground  and  a  southern  exposure. 

*•  When  fit  tc  pick,  the  stem  will  separate  from  the  fruit  by  a 
gentle  pressure  of  the  thumb.  It  will  be  in  best  eating  concb 
tion  the  follow'.ig  day. — J.  B. 


198  GARDENING. 

Keep  them  clean,  and  water  them  (if  the  weather 
be  dry)  often,  but  lightly.  To  have  a  succession  of 
this  fruit  throughout  the  summer,  you  must  occa- 
sionally renew  the  sowings.  A  few  of  the  largest 
plants  should  be  left  for  seed,  and  when  the  fruit  be- 
gins to  rot  is  the  time  for  taking  it.  Cut  off  the 
plant  and  dry  it  in  the  shade,  for  seed  immediately 
removed  from  the  pulp  is  rarely  good. 

The  family  connexions  of  this  plant  (the  Sola- 
nums)  have  made  some  persons  question  its  salubri- 
ty, but,  as  we  think,  without  reason.  If  in  certain 
cases  it  prove  indigestible,  of  what  fruit  may  not 
the  same  be  said,  particularly  if  eaten  to  excess  1 
The  general  impunity  with  which  our  southern 
neighbours  use  it,  even  habitually  and  largely,  is 
in  itself  a  sufficient  guarantee  of  the  safety  with 
which  it  may  be,  occasionally  and  temperately,  em- 
ployed here. 

MUSTARD  (Sinapis). — Two  species  of  the  mustard 
are  objects  of  garden  culture  :  the  black,  which  is 
cultivated  for  the  seed,  and  the  white,  which  is  a 
good  substitute  for  spinach,  and  which  is  sometimes 
used  with  pepper-grass  as  an  ingredient  in  salads.* 
Both  species  grow  well  in  a  great  diversity  of  soils, 
and  with  a  small  portion  of  labour ;  but  the  richer 
the  soil  and  the  greater  the  care,  the  more  vigor- 
ous will  be  the  plants. 

If  the  seed  of  the  first  species  be  our  object,  we 
should  remember  that,  as  the  pods  do  not  either 
form  or  ripen  but  in  succession,  we  must  not  delay 
our  harvest  until  all  have  been  matured  ;  as  in  this 
case  we  should  lose  the  seed  soonest  ripe  (which 
is  always  the  best),  for  the  sake  of  preserving  that 
which  is  later  and  worse.  The  best  rule,  therefore, 
is  to  pull  up  or  cut  off  the  crop  as  soon  as  the  stems 

*  In  Spain,  and  throughout  the  south  of  Europe,  the  seed  of 
the  white  species  ir  preferred  for  the  fabrication  of  mustard ; 
because  g  vine  a  whiter  and  milder  flour  than  the  seed  of  the 
black. 


KlTCHR.f    GARDEN.  199 

become  yellow,  and  carry  it  into  the  barn,  where  it 
may  remain,  covered  with  straw,  for  a  month.  At 
the  end  of  this  time  it  will  be  fit  to  thresh  ;  and  this 
should  be  done  on  cloths,  and  not  with  flails,  since 
these  would  bruise  and  break  the  seed ;  but  with 
bunches  of  rods.  Passed  two  or  three  times  through 
a  fanning  mill,  it  will  be  fit  for  use;  and  the  sooner 
it  is  used  after  cleaning,  the  better  mustard  it  will 
make.* 

The  MUSHROOM  (Agaricus  of  Lin.,  Fungus  of  Tour.). 
— The  latter  of  these  botanists  numbers  not  fewer 
than  seventy-five  plants  of  this  genus,  differing  from 
each  other  in  colour,  in  smell,  and  in  the  size,  form, 
and  number  of  their  heads  or  chapeaux ;  and  With- 
ering, if  we  do  not  mistake,  makes  them  to  amount 
to  more  than  two  hundred.  To  describe,  or  even 
to  name  them,  would  be  an  unprofitable  task,  and 
entirely  beside  the  object  of  the  present  work  ;  as  of 
the  whole  number,  the  Agaricus  Campestris,  or  Fun- 
gus Sativus  Equinus,  is  the  only  species  admitted 
into  garden  culture. 

This  plant  is  propagated  from  the  seeds  only : 
which  are  threads  or  fibres  of  a  white  colour,  found 
in  old  pasture  grounds,  in  masses  of  rotten  horse- 
dung,  sometimes  under  stable  floors,  and  frequently 
in  the  remains  of  old  hotbeds.  They  are  also  al- 
ways to  be  met  with  on  the  growing  plant,  some- 
times on  the  upper,  at  others  on  the  under  surface, 
and  oftener  in  the  interior.  Their  extreme  small- 
ness  makes  them  difficult  to  detect ;  but,  by  placing 
the  plant  on  ice,  and  enclosing  it  for  a  day  or  two, 
they  may  be  readily  discovered,  and  will  be  found 
to  be  semeniform,  and  in  this  respect  differing  from 
the  seeds  of  all  other  vegetables,  and  even  raising 
a  doubt  whether  the  mushroom  does  not  partake 
more  of  the  animal  than  of  the  vegetable  charac- 
ter. Nor  is  this  fact  the  only  one  that  warrants 

*  Its  duration  seems  to  be  limited  to  two  years ;  older  thaa 
this,  it  is  rarely  good.— Bosc. 


200  GARDENING. 

the  suggestion ;  s  nee,  on  analysis,  it  is  found  that 
the  product  of  the  mushroom  is  almost  altogether 
animal ;  whence  it  is  that  those  botanists,  who  are 
tenacious  of  what  is  called  the  natural  order,  make 
it  the  first  vegetable  link  in  the  chain,  as  zoologists 
make  the  polypus  the  last  in  the  animal  series. 

Another  suggestion,  of  more  practical  importance, 
is  that,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  the  mushroom 
is  ofteu  poisonous ;  either  from  some  quality  inhe- 
rent in  itself,  or  from  some  adventitious  matter  (such 
as  the  larvaB  of  insects)  being  imbibed  and  held  by 
its  spongy  surface.  On  this  head  there  has  been  no 
want  either  of  inquiry  or  of  admonition.  Natural- 
ists, in  succession,  from  Pliny  to  Parmentier,  have 
investigated  the  subject,  and  come  to  nearly  the 
same  conclusion,  viz.,  "  that  many  species  of  the 
mushrooms  are  active  poisons,*  and  that  the  best 
are  dangerous,  as  well  from  the  total  want  of  any 
general  rule  for  distinguishing  between  the  good  and 
the  bad,f  as  from  the  tendency  of  all  to  produce  in- 
digestion."! In  despite,  however,  of  these  sage  dis- 
coveries and  councils,  the  mushroom  continues  to 
be  eaten,  and  even  to  be  a  favourite ;  for,  not  con- 
tented with  the  abundance  of  the  article  provided 
by  nature  at  a  particular  season,  means  are  employ- 
ed to  have  it  at  all  seasons,  and  it  is  of  this  culture 
we  have  now  to  speak. 

Prepare  a  bed  early  in  October,  either  in  a  corner 
of  the  hothouse,  if  you  have  one,  or  of  a  dry  and 
warm  cellar.  The  width  of  the  bed  at  the  bottom 
should  not  be  less  than  four  feet,  and  its  length  pro- 

*  Geoffroi,  Paulet,  and  others. 

f  "  It  has  been  said  that  the  mushroom  which  it  is  safe  to 
eat  is  distinguished  from  the  bad  by  a  membrane  which  sur- 
rounds the  footstalk.  This  sign  is,  however,  the  less  sure,  as 
this  membrane  is  found  to  belong  to  a  species  the  most  danger 
ous."  Phytalogie  Universelle,  vol.  ii.,  p.  161. 

t  Parmentier  on  Poisonous  Mushrooms.  Strong  vinegar  and 
emetics  are  the  surest  remedies  against  the  effects  of  these. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  201 

portioned  to  the  quantity  of  spawn  provided.  Its 
sides  should  rise  perpendicularly  one  foot,  and  should 
afterward  decrease  to  the  centre,  forming  four  slo- 
ping surfaces.  We  need  hardly  say  that  the  mate- 
rials of  the  bed  at  this  stage  of  the  business  must 
be  horse-dung,  well  forked  and  pressed  together,  to 
prevent  its  settling  unequally.  It  should  then  be 
covered  with  long  straw,  as  well  to  exclude  frost 
as  to  keep  in  the  volatile  parts  of  the  mass,  which 
would  otherwise  escape.  After  ten  days  the  tem- 
perature of  the  bed  will  be  sufficiently  moderated, 
when  the  straw  is  to  be  removed,  and  a  covering  of 
good  mould,  to  the  depth  of  an  inch,  laid  over  the 
dung.  On  this  the  seed  or  spawn  of  the  mushroom 
is  to  be  placed  in  rows,  six  inches  apart,  occupying 
all  the  sloping  parts  of  the  bed,  which  is  again  to  be 
covered  with  a  second  inch  of  fresh  mould  and  a 
coat  of  straw.  If  your  bed  has  been  well  con- 
structed your  mushrooms  will  be  fit  for  use  at  the 
end  of  five  or  six  weeks,  and  will  continue  to  be 
productive  for  several  months.  Should  you,  how- 
ever, in  the  course  of  the  winter,  find  its  productive- 
ness "diminished,  take  off  nearly  all  the  original 
covering,  and  replace  it  with  eight  or  ten  inches  of 
fresh  dung  and  a  coat  of  clean  straw.  This,  by 
creating  a  new  heat,  will  revive  the  action  of  the 
spawn,  and  give  a  long  succession  of  mushrooms. 

The  flavour  of  this  vegetable  is  highest  in  the 
button  state  ;  when  the  heads  attain  to  the  diameter 
of  an  inch,  they  are  still  good,  and  most  profitable 
in  the  market ;  but,  when  fully  developed,  they  are 
not  worth  picking. 

PARSLEY  (Apium  Petrosihnum). — A  native  of  Sar- 
dinia, according  to  Jollyclerc,  and,  according  to 
Bosc,  an  article  without  which  the  cook  could  not 
exercise  his  trade.*  There  are  thrge  or  four  varie- 

*  "  Oter  le  persil  d'entre  les  mains  d'anquisftiierc'est  .presque 
le  metra  dans  1'impossibilile  d'exercer  son  artT"  . 

Take  away  the  parsley  from  the' cook,  and  you  make  it  in> 
'inssible  tor  him  to  practise  his  art. 


202  GARDENING. 

cties,  the  fine,  the  curled,  the  variegated,  and  the 
large-rooted.  Of  these  the  curled  is  the  most  deli- 
cate, but  most  apt  to  degenerate.  The  large-rooted 
is  the  hardiest,  least  liable  to  change,  most  abun- 
dant in  foliage,  and  quicker  in  renewing  itself. 
These  circumstances  give  it  the  preference. 

Parsley  will  grow  in  almost  any  soil,  but  prefers 
that  which  is  light,  and  fresh,  and  rich.  It  is  best 
sown  in  the  spring  in  a  well-laboured  bed,  manured 
with  old  and  thoroughly  rotted  dung,  and  in  rows 
sufficiently  far  apart  to  admit  the  hoe  and  the 
weeder.  The  cultivator  must  not  be  out  of  pa- 
tience at  the  slowness  with  which  it  shows  itself. 
It  seldom  appears  before  forty  days,  and  not  always 
at  the  end  of  that  term.  Hoeing  and  watering  are, 
however,  all  it  requires  after  it  does  appear.  The 
leaves  are  cropped  in  the  fall,  and  hung  up  in  bun- 
dles for  winter  use.  If  the  soil  in  which  the  plants 
grow  be  stiff  and  moist,  the  roots  ought  to  be  cov- 
ered in  the  fall,  otherwise  there  is  a  risk  of  their 
being  thrown  out  by  the  frost. 

PARSNIP  (Pastinaca). — Of  this  there  are  five  spe- 
cies, but  one  of  which  (Pastinaca  Sativa)  is  admit- 
ted into  the  garden.  This  has  two  varieties,  the 
round  or  turnip  parsnip,  and  the  Siam,  neither  ol 
which  is  much  known. 

Like  other  tap-rooted  plants,  the  pastinaca  thrives 
best  in  a  rich,  deep,  friable  soil,  growing  in  the 
drills  where  it  was  originally  sown,  and  undisturbed 
by  transplanting.  The  rows  should  be  twelve  or 
fourteen  inches  apart,  and  four  of  these  in  a  bed, 
and  the  plants  themselves  should  not  stand  nearer 
together  than  eight  inches. 

The  first  crop  may  be  sown  in  March,  as  no  de- 
gree of  cold  injures  either  the  seed  or  the  plant; 
but  the  seedtime  of  the  main  or  winter  crop  need 
not  begin  till  the  first  of  June,  as  enough  of  the  sea- 
son will  then  be  left  to  mature  it,  and  as  the  hard- 
est frosts  but  make  it  better.  It  is  evidently  a  plant 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  203 

of  northern  origin,  contains  much  sugar,  is  very  nu- 
tritious, and  merits  more  both  of  cultivation  and 
use  than  it  has  received. 

The  PEA  (Pisum)  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope, of  which,  according  to  Linnaeus,  there  are  four 
species,  and  according  to  Millar  six,  while  other  bot- 
anists recognise  only  two  (the  field  and  the  garden), 
and  some  even  contend  that  the  latter  of  these  is 
merely  a  variety  of  the  former,  produced  by  culti- 
vation. What  these  naturalists  better  agree  in  is 
the  arrangement  of  the  whole  family  into  two 
classes,  those  having  coriaceous  pods  (tough  and 
parchment  like),  and  those  having  pods  tender  and 
edible,  like  the  pea  itself.  These  are  again  subdi- 
vided into  dwarfs  and  climbers,  and,  for  more  prac- 
tical use,  into  early  and  late  pease.  Of  the  for- 
mer, in  their  order  of  ripening,  the  most  approved 
sorts  are,  the  early  frame,  early  Charlton,  and 
golden  Hotspur,  and  of  the  latter,  in  the  same  or- 
der, the  large  marrowfat,  the  white  Rounsevil,  the 
Spanish  Marotto,  and  large  imperial.*  The  dwarfs 
are  generally  employed  in  hotbed  culture,  which, 
however,  succeeds  badly,  and  is  neither  worth  at- 
tending to  or  describing,  and  the  less  so  as  early 
crops  may  be  more  certainly  had  by  sowing  in  the 
fall  in  sheltered  situations,  and  covering  in  the  win- 
ter with  a  layer  of  leaves,  and  another  of  long  sta- 
ble litter  loosely  applied,  to  keep  the  leaves  in 
their  places.  After  the  earth  acquires  a  temper- 
ature favourable  to  vegetation,  your  pea-sowings 
should  be  made  once  a  fortnight  to  keep  up  a  regu- 

*  The.  dwarf  sugar,  the  dwarf  Spanish,  and  Leadrnan's  dwarf, 
may  be  usefully  interposed  between  these.  These  dwarf  vari 
eties  are  all  excellent,  the  last,  perhaps,  more  prolific  than  any 
other  of  the  family.  In  France  the  varieties  of  early  and  late 
pease  are  different,  or,  at  least,  called  by  different  names  from 
those  we  have  mentioned.  The  series  of  both  sorts  there  are, 
the  Michaux  of  Holland,  the  baron,  the  Blois,  the  cluster,  and 
the  forty  days,  which  are  early  ;  and  the  nonpareil,  the  Laurens, 
the  Swiss,  the  Eul  Noir,  and  the  Caimart,  which  are  late 
16 


204  GARDENING. 

lar  and  successive  supply.  A  loose  and  warm  soil 
is  most  favourable  to  this  vegetable,  which,  by-the- 
way,  is  neither  improved  in  quality  nor  quantity 
by  stable  manure.  The  soil  of  Clichy,  and  of  Point 
de  jour  des  Colombe,  &c.,  &c.,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Paris, 'is  a  pure  sand,  principally  devoted 
to  pea-crops,  and  yielding  these  most  abundantly, 
without  the  application  of  dung,  new  or  old.  What, 
however,  is  essential  in  their  treatment  is,  frequent 
hoeing,  and  occasional  watering  if  the  weather  be 
dry,  and  seasonable  propping  for  the  tall  sorts, 
which  ought  to  be  completed  by  the  time  the  plants 
get  to  be  three  or  four  inches  high.  All  the  varie- 
ties of  this  last  description  of  the  pea  require  double 
the  room  given  to  dwarfs.  The  rows  in  which  they 
stand  should  not,  therefore,  be  less  than  four  feet 
apart,  and  they  should  grow  in  these  six  inches 
from  each  other,  and  their  covering  should  not  ex- 
ceed two  inches,  nor  be  less  than  one,  according  to 
the  nature  and  condition  of  the  soil  in  which  they 
are  sown.  We  need  scarcely  remark  that  the  dif- 
ferent varieties  should  be  cultivated  apart. 

Like  other  vegetables,  the  pea  is  susceptible  of 
considerable  improvement,  by  the  simple  means 
of  marking  the  finest  plants  of  each  variety,  and 
keeping  them  for  seed.  Wilson's  frame  and  the 
Knight  pea  have  been  formed  in  this  way,  and  af- 
ford sufficient  proof  of  the  wonders  produced  by  a 
very  small  degree  of  observation  and  care. 

The  general  relish  for  the  pea  has  induced  the 
employment  of  means  to  have  them  on  the  table 
the  year  round.  The  methods  in  use  for  this  pur- 
pose are  two.  According  to  one  of  them,  the  pea 
is  subjected  to  the  action  of  boiling  water  for  two 
or  three  minutes,  when  it  is  withdrawn,  cooled  in 
fresh  spring  water,  dried  in  the  shade,  and,  lastly, 
hung  up  in  paper  bags  in  a  dry  and  well-aired  closet. 
The  other  process  is  later  and  perhaps  better ;  in 
this  the  pease  are  put  into  bottles,  which  are  aftel- 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  205 

ward  hermetically  sealed,  and  subjected  to  the  ac- 
tion of  boiling  water  for  fifteen  minutes.  In  both 
cases  the  pease  require  boiling  a  second  time  in  the 
ordinary  way  to  make  them  fit  for  the  table ;  and, 
when  preserved  according  to  the  first  method,  a 
great  deal  of  boiling ;  Bosc  says  twenty-four  hours. 
All  the  varieties  are  not  found  to  be  equally  fit  for 
this  process ;  the  Michaux  of  Holland  and  the  Cal- 
mart  are  those  exclusively  employed  in  France. 

PEPPER,  RED  (Capsicum). — This  is  the  Annual 
Pepper  of  the  botanists,  of  which  there  are  two 
species,  the  Grossum  and  the  Frutescens,  the  latter 
of  which  we  have  only  seen  in  hothouses. 

Like  other  natives  of  southern  climates,  the  cap- 
sicum requires  a  warm. soil,  and,  if  sown  early,  a 
good  deal  of  dung  and  a  favourable  exposition.  The 
seeds  may  be  placed  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  or  in 
hills  at  the  like  distance  from  each  other.  In  dry 
weather  the  plants  require  watering,  and,  in  all 
kinds  of  weather,  weeding  and  hoeing.  The  seeds 
are  best  preserved  by  running  a  string  through  the 
pods  and  hanging  them  up  in  a  dry  garret. 

THE  POTATO  (Solanum  Tuberosum). — Of  the  sixty 
varieties  of  this  vegetable,  two  are  particularly  rec- 
ommended for  garden  culture;  the  one  from  its 
precocity  (ripening  in  forty  days),  and  the  other 
from  its  excellence.  This  last  is  most  generally 
known  by  the  name  of  the  yam  potato,  and  is  so 
called  from  its  great  resemblance  (in  taste)  to  the 
vegetable  of  that  name. 

The  hardiness  of  this  plant  enables  it  to  grow  in 
any  soil  and  under  very  negligent  culture ;  but  the 
soil  most  propitious  to  it  is  a  rich  loam,  and  the 
more  hoeing  and  hilling  it  gets  before  it  flowers, 
the  better  will  be  your  crop.  In  gardens  it  is  best 
placed  in  rows  three  fret  apart.  Gypsum  applied 
to  the.  leaves  of  the  growing  plant  will  be  found 
useful. 

The  POTATO  (sweet)  is  a  species  of  convolvulus, 


206  GARDENING. 

originally  from  Asia,  making  great  part  of  the  food 
of  tropical  latitudes,  and  occasionally  cultivated  as 
far  north  as  Long  Island.  Of  its  many  varieties 
three  only  are  known  to  us,  and  these  take  their  de- 
nominations from  their  colour.  The  red  is  the  ear- 
liest, the  yellow  the  sweetest,  and  the  white  the 
largest.  In  the  sandy  and  humid  parts  of  South 
Carolina,  all  these  races  attain  to  a  considerable 
size.  On  Long  Island  they  are  small  and  (what  is 
more  to  be  regretted)  very  inferior  in  the  nutritive 
and  agreeable  qualities  which  distinguish  the  fruit 
when  growing  under  more  favourable  circum- 
stances.* 

This  plant  is  easily  cultivated,  and,  whether  it 
gives  us  fruit  or  not,  its  beauty  is  such  as  will  well 
repay  us  for  the  trouble  of  raising  it.  Score  the 
square  intended  for  it  (which  should  have  been  pre- 
viously well  dug  and  manured)  both  ways,  and  at 
the  distance  of  four  feet  each  way,  and  place  and 
cover  the  seeds  at  the  angles  of  intersection.  When 
the  plants  rise,  keep  them  clear  of  weeds,  and,  as 
in  hilling  corn,  draw  up  the  earth  well  about  the 
roots. 

The  PUMPKIN  is  a  species  of  the  Cucurbita. 
Among  its  varieties  are  the  Maltese,  the  Barbary, 
the  Iroquois,  and  the  white,  which  is  the  winter 
pumpkin'.!  The  culture  of  all  is  the  same.  They 
are  less  nice  than  cucumbers  and  melons  with  re- 
gard to  soil,  and  will  grow  in  any  dry  and  well-la- 
boured earth.  The  best  time  for  sowing  them  is 
between  the  15th  and  25th  of  May. 

The  RADISH  (Raphanus  Sativus). — Of  this  there  are 

*  Parmentier  analyzed  the  sweet  potatoe  in  1780.  There- 
suit  was  sugar,  amidon,  and  an  extractive  matter  ;  but  he  well 
remarks-thai  "  these  principles  vary  with  the  age  and  variety  of 
the  plant,  and  with  the  soil  and  ch  nate  in  which  it  grows." 

t  Many  new  varieties  have  befn  recently  introduced,  and 
among  the  best  is  the  Valparaiso,  known  under  different  names. 
-J.  B. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  207 

two  species,  distinguished  only  by  the  shape  of 
their  roots ;  that  of  the  one  being  long,  and  that  of 
the  other  round.  The  principal  varieties  of  the  for- 
mer are  the  early,  the  salmon,  the  red,  and  the 
large,  which  last  has  no  characteristic  colour. 
Those  of  the  latter  species  are  also  distinguished  by 
their  different  colour  and  size  ;  some  are  large,  oth- 
ers small ;  some  are  white,  others  black  ;  some  are 
/«sh-coloured,  and  others  are  pink  and  purple.  All 
require  a  similar  soil  (loose  and  rich)  and  a  careful, 
seasonable,  and  cleanly  cultivation.  The  sowings 
of  the  radish,  like  those  of  spinach  and  lettuce, 
must  be  frequent.  "  Sow  every  fourteen  days"  is 
the  common  rule,  and  it  seems  to  be  a  good  one, 
and  founded  on  the  known  disposition  of  the  plant 
to  run  promptly  to  seed. 

The  RADISH  [horse]  (Cochlearia  Armoriacia). — 
This  plant  is  one  of  six  species  having  the  common 
English  name  of  spleenwort  or  scurvy-grass.  If.  is 
generally  propagated  by  cuttings  or  offsets  taken 
from  the  crown  of  the  parent  plant,  and  having  each 
a  bud,  and  set  in  a  trench  ten  inches  deep  and  four 
or  five  inches  apart.  The  cuttings  are  then  covered 
with  mould,  and  the  surfaces  of  the  trenches  kept 
clean  and  loose.  The  plants  will  soon  take  root, 
and,  after  doing  so,  will  fear  no  rivals. 

RAMIMON  (Campanula). — Two  or  more  species  of 
this  plant  are  cultivated  for  purposes  merely  of  dec- 
oration ;  as  the  pyramidal,  the  peach-leaf,  the  mir- 
ror of  Venus,  &c. ;  but  that  which  alone  interests  us 
is  the  Hortensis,  and  which,  from  its  abundant  mu- 
cilage, is  regarded  as  both  nutritive  and  refreshing, 
and  an  excellent  ingredient  in  salads.  The  seed  is 
remarkably  small,  and  should  be  sown  thin  in  the 
month  of  June.  It  requires  little,  if  any,  covering 
and  germinates  best  in  a  loose,  moist  soil,  and  shady 
situation. 

ROSEMARY  (Rosmarinus  OJficinalis}. — The  leaves 
of  this  plant  abound  in  aroma,  and  are  employed  in 


208  GARDENING. 

soups  and  sauces.  It  is,  besides,  the  basis  oi  the  cel- 
ebrated liqueur  called  La  Reine  de  Hongrie,  and  is 
yet  more  famous  for  giving  to  the  honey  of  Nar- 
bonne  its  acknowledged  superiority.  The  tops  of 
the  branches  furnish  an  essential  oil,  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  experiments  of  Proust,  contain  much 
camphire.  It  is  propagated  by  cuttings  and  suck- 
ers. "  Planted  in  the  month  of  March  six  inches 
apart,  and  inserted  two  thirds  of  their  lengths  in  the 
ground,  they  will  take  root  freely,  and  by  the  month 
of  September  be  fit  for  transplanting  wherever  they 
are  destined  to  remain."* 

RUE  (Ruta  Graveolens). — This  plant  is  a  native  of 
mountainous  and  arid  regions,  and,  so  far  as  we 
have  any  acquaintance  with  it,  exclusively  medici- 
nal ;  but,  having  obtained  a  place  in  the  kitchen  gar- 
den, it  is  not  for  us  to  reject  it.  As  with  other  ar- 
omatics,  a  light,  and  warm,  and  dry  soil  is  that 
which  agrees  best  with  it.  It  is  propagated  from 
cuttings  and  offsets  planted  in  March  or  April,  and 
kept  clear  of  weeds  throughout  the  summer.  Its 
beauty  is  much  increased  by  lopping  the  branches 
close  to  the  earth  every  fourth  year. 

RHUBARB  (Rheum). — 5lostof  the  known  species  of 
this  plant  are  of  Asiatic  origin,  but  the  two  which 
alone  enter  into  the  food  of  man  (the  Rhaponticum 
and  Undulatum)  are  natives  of  Thrace  and  Russia. f 
The  stalks,  which  are  the  parts  used  for  culinar}r 

*  M'Mahon. 

t  Several  new  varieties,  if  not  new  species,  of  this  plant, 
adapted  to  culinary  uses,  have  recently  been  introduced.  Among 
those  most  worthy  of  culture  is  the  giant,  the  leaf  stems  of 
which  grow  upon  rich  soils  to  the  size  of  six  and  seven  inches 
in  circumference,  and  give  a  leaf  a  yard  in  diameter.  Those 
who  are  fond  of  pies  and  tarts  cannot  obtain  a  more  convenient 
article  for  these  than  the  rhubarb,  from  March  to  September ; 
for,  placed  in  a  tub  with  earth  in  autumn,  and  set  in  a  cellar  or 
basement  kitchen,  and  merely  watered,  the  roots  will  send  forth 
an  abundance  of  stalks,  which  may  be  used  early  in  March. — 
J.  13. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  209 

purposes,  grow  to  the  length  of  twenty-four  inches, 
and  acquire  the  thickness  of  a  man's  thumb.  Strip- 
ped of  their  outer  covering,  they  yield  a  substance 
slightly  acid,*  which  is  much  admired,  and  employ- 
ed as  an  ingredient  in  the  composition  of  puddings 
and  tarts.  Cobbett  supposes  that  a  hundred  wagon- 
loads  of  these  stalks  are  annually  sold  in  the  markets 
of  London,  at  a  shilling  sterling  per  bunch. f 

The  rhubarb  is  propagated  sometimes  from  seeds, 
and  oftener  from  offsets  from  old  roots. J  It  re- 
quires a  soil  dry,  and  rich,  and  well-laboured.  Two 
years  are  necessary  to  render  it  fit  for  use,  but, 
once  established,  it  will  last  a  century. 

SAGE  (Salvia  Officinalis). — This  is  one  of  the  hun- 
dred and  more  species  of  Salvia  enumerated  by 
botanists.  It  has  many  varieties,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  are,  the  large-leaved,  the  curled,^  the 
three-coloured,  and  the  variegated.  They  are  all 
propagated  alike,  by  seeds,  by  suckers,  and  by  por- 
tions of  old  roots,  and  grow  well  in  any  soil  not 
positively  wet.  Till  three  or  four  years  old,  they 
have  a  healthy  and  agreeable  appearance,  forming 
full  and  regular  tufts ;  but  after  this  period  they 
lose  the  central  branches,  and  even  become  ragged 
and  broken  on  their  edges.  The  treatment  already 
suggested  for  rue  might  be  useful  for  sage.  Under 
it  the  roots  would  probably  renew  their  vigour,  and 
throw  out  new  and  healthy  shoots;  but  of  this  the- 
ory we  have  no  experience. 

SALSIFY  (Tragopogori) . — This  is  a  native  of  the 
southern  mountains  of  Europe,  has  been  long  cul- 

*  The  stalks,  like  the  roots,  yield,  on  analysis,  sulphur  and 
lime. 

t  American  Gardener. 

i  The  best  mode  is  to  propagate  from  seeds  which  ripen  in 
fuly.  If  then  sown,  the  plants  may  be  put  out  three  feet  apart 
the  next  spring,  and  will  give  a  good  crop  the  second  summer  af- 
ter transplanting.— J.  B. 

(j  This  is  made  a  distinct  species  by  Wildenow,  under  the 
nam1'  of  Salvia  Tomentosa. 


210  GARDENING. 

tivated,  and  has  several  varieties,  of  which  it  is  un- 
necessary to  speak.  Deep  and  humid  soils  are  most 
favourable  to  its  production.  After  the  preliminary 
labours  of  digging  and  smoothing,  the  square  in- 
tended for  it  should  be  formed  into  four-feet  beds, 
and  the  seeds  be  sown  and  covered  in  rows  eight 
or  ten  inches  apart.  This  should  be  done  as  soon 
as  the  frosts  are  over  in  the  spring,  for  the  earlier 
the  sowing  the  finer  will  be  the  crop.  Two  hoe- 
ings,  and  frequent  watering  during  dry  and  hot 
weather,  are  indispensable.  It  is  only  in  the  au- 
tumn that  the  plants  attain  to  their  full  size.  In 
mild  climates  they  winter  where  they  grow,  like 
parsnips ;  but  in  cold  regions  they  must  be  taken 
up  and  preserved  in  roothouses  or  cellars,  under 
coverings  of  sand  or  litter.  Plants  intended  to  give 
seed  should  be  left  to  winter  in  the  ground  where 
they  have  grown,  and  be  there  protected  by  leaves, 
straw,  &c. 

SALSIFY  BLACK  (Scorzonera  Hispanica)  affects  the 
same  kind  of  soil,  and  requires  the  same  kind  of 
culture  and  management  as  the  preceding  kind,  and 
is  of  the  same  family. 

SAVORY  (Satureja). — Of  this  plant  Millar  describes 
nine  species,  but  two  of  which  come  within  our 
views,  and  which  are  denominated  from  two  of  the 
seasons,  winter  and  summer.  The  former  is  a  per- 
ennial plant,  and  is  propagated  from  seeds  or  slips  ; 
the  latter  is  an  annual,  and  is  propagated  from  seeds 
only.  For  either  process,  sowing  or  planting,  April 
is  the  time.  Neither  sort  is  nice  with  regard  to 
soil ;  and  it  is  said  of  one  of  them  (the  winter  spe- 
cies) that  it  grows  best  in  barren  sands  and  bleak 
situations. 

SEAKALE*  (Crambe  Maratima)  is  a  native  of  the 
seashore,  growing  vigorously  in  sands  occasionally 

*  We  have  found  by  experience  that  good  seakale,  like  Frank- 
lin's  whistle,  costs  more  than  it  is  worth.  We  have  given  up 
its  culture, — J.  B. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  211 

inundated  by  salt  water.  When  the  head  of  the 
plant  first  shows  itself,  it  is  white,  and  tender,  and 
well-flavoured,  and  not  inferior  to  asparagus ;  but, 
after  reaching  the  light  and  the  air,  it  soon  becomes 
green  and  bitter,  and  quite  unfit  for  the  table.  The 
natural  condition  of  the  plant  would  appear  to  in- 
dicate the  best  mode  of  cultivating  it,  and  that  the 
bed  destined  for  it  should  be  pure  sand,  moistened 
by  a  solution  of  salt  in  water ;  but  we  have  on  this 
head  the  assurance  of  practical  gardeners,  that,  in  a 
well-manured  and  thoroughly  dug  loam,  the  seakale 
does  even  better  than  in  its  natural  bed.*  This 
plant  is  propagated  by  cuttings  and  by  seeds, 
and  most  surely  by  the  former ;  but  the  quality  of 
the  product  is  inferior  to  that  given  by  the  other 
mode.f  In  case  of  planting,  your  beds  must  be  so 
prepared  as  to  receive  each  two  rows  of  the  slips, 
which  are  to  stand  fourteen  inches  apart  (in  an  up- 
right position),  with  their  crowns  not  more  than 
one  inch  under  the  surface.  In  five  or  six  weeks 
they  may  show  themselves  above  ground,  and  du- 
ring the  second  year,  if  kept  free  from  weeds  and 
occasionally  watered,  will  be  fit  for  use.  If  sowing 
be  preferred,  after  labouring  the  ground  thoroughly, 
form  a  number  of  hills  as  for  Indian  corn,  and  sow 
in  each  six  or  eight  seeds.  Should  they  all  vege- 
tate, they  may  be  reduced  to  two,  which  you  will 
manage  in  the  way  prescribed  for  the  cuttings.  In 
November,  whether  your  bed  has  been  filled  with 
plants  or  with  seedlings,  be  careful  to  cover  them 
with  a  thick  coat  of  well-rotted  dung;  and  so 
soon  in  the  ensuing  spring  or  summer  as  you  find 
them  pushing  through  this  covering,  put  over  each 
a  garden-pot  inverted,  having  first  stopped  the  bot- 
tom-holes. J  The  signal  for  cutting  is  when  the 
plants  have  risen  about  three  inches  above  the  sur- 
face. 

*  M'Mahon.  t  Idem.    Millar. 

t  The  object  in  doing  this  is  to  exclude  the  light,  for  under 
its  influence  the  plant  Incomes  green  and  bitter 
17 


212  GARDENING. 

THE  SKIRRET  (Sium  Sisarum  of  Tournefort). — This 
is  called  by  Millar  the  Water  Parsnip,  and  is  found 
growing  spontaneously  in  many  parts  of  England, 
in  moist  or  wet  grounds.  There  are  six  species, 
but  one  of  which  is  cultivated  in  the  garden.  The 
root,  which  is  the  only  edible  part  of  the  plant,  is 
long  and  fibrous,  wholesome  and  nutritious ;  but  to 
some  palates  it  is  disagreeably  sweet.  It  is  propa 
gated  indifferently  from  seeds  or  from  cuttings, 
though  Millar  prefers  the  latter,  as  furnishing  roots 
of  greater  size  and  better  quality.  April  is  the 
month  most  proper  for  either  operation,  sowing  or 
planting.  In  both  modes  the  culture  is  in  drills, 
taking  care  that  the  plants  be  not  nearer  than  four 
or  five  inches  to  each  other.  The  soil  in  which  it 
succeeds  best  is  a  loose,  moist  loam ;  and  the  cul- 
ture and  subsequent  management  do  not  differ  from 
those  already  described  for  parsnips. 

SORREL  (Rumex  Acetosa  of  Lmnaus). —  Of  this 
plant  there  are  four  species,  distinguished  by  the 
shape  and  size  of  their  leaves,  as  the  pointed,  the 
obtuse,  the  round,  the  large,  the  small,  &c.  All 
soils  not  positively  dry  or  wet  are  adapted  to  this 
vegetable ;  nor  do  they  require  more  than  a  light 
dressing.  It  is  propagated  as  well  by  cuttings  as 
by  seeds.  In  the  former  case  the  slips  are  put 
down  in  the  fall,  and  in  the  latter  the  seeds  are 
sown  in  the  spring.  In  gathering  it,  many  garden- 
ets  cut  off  an  entire  tuft  close  to  the  ground ;  but  a 
better  .method,  because  more  favourable  to-repro- 
duction,  is  to  crop  the  outer  leaves  first,  always 
leaving  the  central  ones  to  be  last  taken.*  We  need 
scarcely  mention  that,  besides  culinary  uses,  sorrel 
furnishes  an  acid  salt,  much  employed  in  taking  out 
stains  from  linen,  and  that  the  roots  yield  a  beauti- 
ful red  water,  known  in  medicine  as  a  sudorific. f 

*  This  is  the  practice  of  the  gardeners  of  Paris, 
t  Bosc. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  213 

SPINACH  (Spinackia). — Of  this  there  are  but  two 
known  species,  the  Fera  and  the  Oleracea  ;  the  one 
a  native  of  Siberia,*  the  other  of  Persia. ft  It  is  the 
latter  only  that  is  known  in  garden  culture,  and  of 
it  there  are  four  varieties,  distinguished  by  the 
shape  of  their  seeds,  and  the  greater  or  less  abun- 
dance and  size  of  their  leaves,  as  follows  :  Spinach 
with  sharp-pointed  seeds  and  small  leaves  :  spinach 
with  round  seeds  and  small  leaves;  spinach  with 
pointed  seeds  and  large  leaves ;  and  spinach  with 
round  seeds  and  large  leaves,  commonly  called 
spinach  of  Holland.  The  first  of  these  varieties  is 
recommended  by  its  hardiness  ;  as  it  stands  the  win- 
ter better  than  either  of  the  others,  and  is,  of  course, 
to  be  preferred  for  fall  sowing.  The  third  gives 
most  foliage,  and  is  fittest  for  spring  culture.  The 
fourth  unites,  in  a  great  degree,  the  advantages  of 
the  first  and  third,  bearing  the  winter  well,  and  pro- 
ducing an  abundance  of  foliage.  If,  therefore,  we 
cultivate  but  one  of  these  varieties,  this  is  the  one 
which  we  ought  to  prefer.  The  soil  most  proper 
for  spinach  is  a  moist,  rich  loam,  well  dug  and  well 
manured.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in  drills  six 
inches  apart,  and  lightly  covered.  For  fall  sowing 
the  middle  of  October  is  a  good  time  ;  and  for  the 
spring  crop  the  seed  should  be  sown  the  moment 
you  are  able  to  get  it  into  the  earth.  To  the  for- 
mer a  light  covering  of  straw,  during  the  winter, 
will  be  useful.  According  to  the  opinion  of  the 
French  physicians,  this  plant  is  not  only  food,  but 
physic ;  and  is  hence  emphatically  called  "  Le  balai 
de  1'estomac" — the  broom  of  the  stomach — sweep- 
ing and  deterging  every  hole  and  corner  of  that  or 
gan,  without  giving  pain,  or  in  any  degree  inter- 

*  Phyt.  Univer.,  art.  Epinard.  -f  Olivier. 

J  The  New-Zealand  spinach  has  been  recently  introduced. 
It  is  an  excellent  pot-herb ;  but,  being  natural  to  a  wanner  cli- 
mate, it  does  not  come  forward  till  warm  weather,  and  until 
other  garden  prod  actions  are  in  abundance. — J.  B. 


214  GARDENING. 

rupting  the  ordinary  avocations  of  the  persons  using 
it.  It  may  be  useful  to  remark,  that,  to  have  the 
full  benefit  of  this  nutritious  and  curative  vegetable, 
the  spring  and  summer  sowings  should  be  made 
every  month,  and  that  those  of  the  latter  should 
have  a  shaded  or  northern  exposition,  as  otherwise 
they  will  run  rapidly  to  seed. 

THE  SQUASH  is  a  species  of  the  cucurbita.  and 
seems  to  be  the  link  that  connects  the  melon  with 
the  pumpkin.  According  to  Millar,  this  species  is 
very  inconstant  in  its  appearance,  rarely  preserving 
the  same  form  three  years  in  succession,  sometimes 
taking  that  of  a  shrub,  and  at  other  times  that  of  a 
vine.  Our  own  experience  does  not  warrant  this 
reproach.*  The  Bush  and  the  Bell  varieties  appear 
to  us  to  be  sufficiently  distinct,  nor  have  we  noticed 
any  proneness  in  them  to  exchange  characters. 
With  regard  to  soil  and  culture,  those  which  are 
fittest  for  the  pumpkin  are  also  most  propitious  to 
the  squash. 

THYME  (Thymus)  is  of  a  species  embracing  not 
less  than  twenty  varieties,  but  one  of  which  (the 
common  or  cultivated)  comes  within  the  plan  of 
our  work.  This  is  generally  found  in  gardens, 
sometimes  in  tufts,  and  sometimes  in  rows ;  but, 
however  placed,  always  growing  best  in  poor,  light, 
and  warm  soils.  In  those  which  are  cold,  stiff,  or 
moist,  it  does  not  thrive ;  its  branches  become  rag- 
ged, its  leaves  few,  its  flowers  faded,  and  their  pe- 
culiar aroma  is  less  strong.  When  cultivated  under 
circumstances  more  propitious,  it  requires  a  change 
of  place  every  fourth  or  fifth  year.  All  the  parts  of 
this  plant,  but  particularly  the  calix  of  its  flower, 
yields  an  essential  oil,  yellow  and  odorous,  and 

*  The  pumpkin  and  the  squash  seem  to  be  first  cousins,  and 
consequently  will  intermix,  and  produce  an  infirm  progeny. 
They  should  be  kept  apart.  The  vegetable  marrow  is  a  new 
and  superior  variety  ;  good  both  in  its  green  and  matured  state 
whether  for  summer  or  winter  use. — J.  B. 


KITCHEN    GARDEN.  215 

highly  charged  with  camphire.  In  the  kitchen  it  is 
used  as  an  ingredient  in  sauces  and  stuffings,  and 
in  what  are  technically  called  forced  meals.  The 
plant  may  be  propagated  either  by  seed  or  by  suck- 
ers, and  requires  only  to  be  kept  free  from  weeds 
or  grasses. 

TOMATOES  (Solanum  Lycopersicum) . — This  plant  is 
of  the  same  family  with  the  potato,  and,  like  it,  is  a 
native  of  Southern  America.  It  has  several  species, 
two  of  which  fall  under  our  notice  as  garden  vege 
tables,  and  are  distinguished  from  each  other  only 
by  a  difference  of  size.*  The  smaller  of  these  is 
held  to  be  the  parent  plant,  and  has.  the  advantage 
of  ripening  sooner  than  the  other,  and  better  resist- 
ing cold  weather.  To  have  an  early  crop,  sow  the 
seed  in  a  warm  and  dry  soil,  and  sheltered  situation, 
in  October,!  and  cover  the  bed  with  straw  or  stable 
litter  during  the  winter.  For  summer  and  fall  use 
sow  again  in  May,  and  water  freely.  If  the  soil 
and  situation  be  favourable,  and  the  culture  proper, 
the  product  will  be  great.  Bosc  says,  "  J'ai  vu  de 
ces  pieds  qui  couvraient  une  toise  de  terrain,  et  qui 
fournissoient  plusieurs  centaines  de  fruits. "j  The 
distance  between  the  plants  should  not  be  less  thar 
two  feet. 

JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE  (Helianlhus  Tuberosus)  is  a 
native  of  the  mountains  of  Chili,  and  a  species  of 
sunflower,  having  roots  somewhat  resembling  pota- 
toes in  bulk  and  shape,  and  more  nearly  approach- 
ing the  artichoke  in  taste.  Its  nutritive  principles 
are  less  abundant  than  those  of  the  potato,  carrot, 
&c.  On  analysis  it  yields  neither  sugar  nor  amidon, 
and  is  not  susceptible  either  of  the  panary  or  the 

*  The  varieties  are  now  numerous,  and  differ  in  size  and 
colour. — J.  B. 

t  They  may  as  well  be  sown  in  a  hotbed  in  April.  The  plants 
will  attain  sufficient  size  to  be  planted  in  the  open  ground  as 
soon  as  the  season  will  permit. — J.  B. 

t  I  have  seen  as  many  of  these  plants  as  covered  a  space  of  two 
yards  square,  producing  several  hundred  heads  of  fruit. 


216  GARDENING. 

vinous  fermentation.  It  is,  however,  recommended 
by  its  hardiness  (fearing  neither  cold,  nor  heat,  nor 
drought)  and  by  the  cheapness  of  its  culture  ;  for,  if 
once  committed  to  the  earth,  it  calls  for  no  additional 
care ;  continuing  itself,  and  spreading  and  flourish- 
ing in  the  midst  of  rivals  and  enemies.  It  is  this 
last  property  which  renders  it  so  precious  to  the 
agriculturist  as  a  permanent  hog-pasture ;  and  the 
more  so,  as  it  will  accommodate  itself  to  any  de- 
scription of  soil,  though  that  most  congenial  to  it 
is  a  deep,  moist,  or  marshy  loam.  Like  the  potato, 
it  is  propagated  by  cuttings. 

The  TURNIP  (Rapa). — This  plant  is  of  the  cabbage 
family.  But,  unlike  its  relations,  it  requires  a  loose, 
warm,  and  dry  soil,  either  sandy  or  calcareous ;  and 
as  a  manure,  wood  ashes  rather  than  dung.  There 
are  many  varieties,  four  of  which  are  common  to 
garden  and  field  culture,  viz.,  the  Dutch,  whose  ve- 
getation is  most  rapid,  and,  of  course,  fittest  for  early 
crops;  and  the  Swedish,  the  green,  and  the  purple 
top,  which  do  not  succeed  unless  sown  late,  and 
which,  on  this  account  as  well  as  on  account  of  their 
greater  solidity  and  less  evaporation,  are  the  most 
suitable  for  winter  use.  Turnip  seed  is  generally 
sown  broadcast;  but  the  experiments  of  Lord  Town- 
send  have  clearly  established  the  preference  of  the 
row  or  drill  method,  as  well  for  a  greater  economy 
of  time  and  labour,  as  for  a  better  and  more  abun- 
dant product.  The  time  of  sowing,  as  already  in- 
dicated, will  depend  on  the  variety  selected.  If  the 
Dutch,  sow  early ;  if  the  ruta  baga,  sow  about  the 
1st  of  June  ;*  and  if  the  green  or  purple  top,  do  not 
sow  till  the  last  week  of  July  or  first  week  of 
August.  After  sufficiently  covering  the  seed,  press 
it  down  with  a  heavy  roller;  the  object  of  which  is 
not  merely  to  bring  the  earth  and  the  seed  into  con- 
tact, but  to  protect  the  rising  crop  against  the  fly,  as 
many  experiments  concur  in  proving  that  these  in- 

*  The  J5th  or  20th  is  preferable.— J.  B. 


FRUIT 'GARDEN.  217 

sects  are  much  multiplied  by  leaving  the  surface  of 
the  earth  loose  and  pervious,  and  much  diminished 
by  rendering  it  close  and  compact. 

The  only  variety  of  this  plant  made  better,  or, 
rather,  not  made  worse  by  transplanting,  is  the  ruta 
baga.  A  few  feet  square  will  give  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  plants.  Draw  and  set  these  about  a  foot  from 
each  other,  on  ridges  three  feet  apart.  Keep  the 
plants  free  from  weeds  during  the  whole  course  of 
their  vegetation,  and  you  will  rarely  fail  to  have  an 
abundant  crop. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE    FRUIT    GARDEN. 

NEXT  to  bread  corn  and  culinary  esculents,  tne 
products  of  this  description  of  garden  holds  the 
highest  place  on  the  scale  of  table  .economy.  As 
articles  of  food  and  drink,  ripe  fruits  and  their  pre- 
pared juices  are  equally  wholesome  and  pleasant; 
and  in  many  complaints  are  auxiliary  to  medicine, 
while  in  others  they  serve  as  substitutes  for  it. 
Every  portion  of  ground,  therefore,  set  apart  for 
the  purposes  of  horticulture,  should  contain  a  few 
fruit-bearing  trees  and  shrubs  of  the  more  common 
and  useful  kinds  (as  apples,  cherries,  peaches, 
&c.),  to  be  placed  in  the  borders  of  its  northern  and 
western  sides,  where  they  will  least  interfere  with 
other  products,  and  even  be  useful  in  defending 
these  from  high  and  cold  winds.  But  in  all  cases 
where  the  occupant  has  room  for  an  exclusive  fruit 
garden,  this  ought  to  be  preferred,  as  possessing 
many  advantages  over  the  mixed  kind,  and  particu- 
larly that  of  giving  to  trees  and  shrubs  the  soil,  ex- 
position, culture,  and  arrangement  best  fitted  for 
their  several  kinds  and  species.  To  the  end,  how- 


218  GARDENING. 

ever,  that  either  plan  may  be  pursued  according  to 
the  taste  or  convenience  of  the  cultivator,  we  shall 
take  up  the  list  of  fruit-giving  plants  under  the  com- 
mon and  technical  division  of  kernel  and  stone  fruits, 
berries  and  nuts ;  and,  under  separate  heads,  indi- 
cate the  soil,  exposure,  &c.,  &c.,  most  proper  for 
each. 

The  APPLE-TREE  (Malus).* — Of  the  many  fruit- 
trees  in  cultivation,  this  may  be  deemed  the  most 
important ;  not  only  from  the  great  abundance,  di- 
versified character,  and  numerous  uses  of  its  pro- 
ducts, but  from  the  small  degree  of  care  and  labour 
required  in  its  culture,  and  the  uncommon  facility 
with  which  it  adapts  itself  to  a  great  diversity  of 
soils,  climates,  and  situations.  One  of  its  varie- 
ties (the  crab)  is  a  native  of  our  own  forests ;  but 
the  cultivated  sorts  among  us  have  all  been  deri- 
ved from  Europe,  as  those  of  Europe  were  originally 
derived  from  Asia  Minor. 

No  general  catalogue  of  the  varieties  of  the  ap- 
ple-tree has  ever,  so  far  as  our  reading  extends, 
been  given  to  the  public,  nor  is  it  probable,  from 
their  great  and  increasing  multiplication,  that  any 
successful  attempt  could  now  be  made  at  their 
enumeration  and  description.  In  the  time  of  Pliny 
twenty  different  sorts  were  known  at  Rome,  whence 
they  gradually  spread  themselves  over  the  other 
parts  of  Europe.  It  was  not  till  1572,  according  to 
Stow,  that  they  appeared  in  England.  In  1629, 
Parkinson  enumerated./z/ty  varieties  growing  there ; 
in  1650,  Hartlib  counted  two  hundred;  and  in  1822, 
London  offered  a  list  of  two  hundred  and  forty  ap- 
proved sorts  then  selling  at  the  London  nurseries. f{ 

*  Linnaeus  places  it  in  the  family  of  pears,  and  thence  denom- 
inates it  Pyrus  malus ;  but  Millar  and  others  regard  it  as  a  dis- 
tinct genus. 

t  Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening. 

j  The  varieties  in  the  London  Horticultural  Garden  alone 
exceed  fourteen  hundred,  and  this  collection  comprises  but  a 
part.— J.  B. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  219 

In  choosing  between  so  many  varieties,  old  and 
young,  though  disappointment  would  perhaps  be 
impossible,  still  selection  might  not  be  easy ;  and 
in  this  view  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  furnish  the 
reader  with  a  short  list,  in  a  tabular  form,  of  those 
sorts  which  stand  highest  in  horticultural  estima- 
tion, for  the  hardness  and  productiveness  of  the 
tree,  the  excellence  of  the  fruit,  and  the  variety  of 
uses  to  which  this  may  be  applied.*  (See  next  page.) 

It  was  perhaps  a  comparison  between  modern 
and  ancient  lists  which  first  suggested  the  idea  that 
"  the  varieties  of  the  apple-tree  have  but  a  limited 
duration,  and  that  they  disappear  by  whole  races." 
The  Moil,  the  Redstreak,  the  Musts  and  the  Golden 
Pippin,  the  Stire  and  the  Fox  Whelp,  according  to 
the  observations  of  Knight,f  are  rapidly  declining ; 
and  some  recent  facts  warrant  us  in  the  belief  that 
our  own  Spitzenberg  is  fast  hastening  to  its  end. 

Before  the  discovery  of  this  law  of  nature,  little, 
if  any,  attention  was  given  to  the  propagation  of 
the  apple-tree  by  modes  other  than  those  which 
perpetuate  a'  favourite  race ;  and  hence  it  was  that 
scions,  buds,  layers,  and  cuttings,  were  long  and  ex- 
clusively employed.  But  this  practice  is  now  con- 
siderably qualified,  and  many  horticulturists  and  am- 
ateurs are  engaged  in  producing  new  varieties  from 
the  seeds,  and  from  a  commixture  of  the  farinas  of 
sorts  whose  merits  are  already  established. J  Of 

*  Such  has  been  the  improvement  in  the  apple,  that  not  more 
than  one  half  of  these  varieties  would  now  be  ranked  in  the  first 
class  of  fruit. — J.  B. 

t  Treatise  on  Apple  and  Pear  Trees,  p.  15. 

j  The  credit  of  this  discovery  is  due  to  Mr.  Knight,  the  dis- 
tinguished president  of  the  Horticultural  Society  of  London. 
On  this  point,  however,  there  are  skeptics,  and  of  considerable 
name.  Williamson  and  Speechley  consider  the  deterioration  of 
the  apple-tree  as  accidental,  not  uniform  ;  as  the  temporary  ef- 
fect of  weather,  not  that  of  a  settled  law  of  nature  ;  and,  there- 
fore, that  "  genial  summers  will  restore  to  old  trees  their  ordi- 
nary health  and  duration." — Hort.  Trans.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  291 ;  and 
Hints,  p.  188 


220 


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FRUIT    GARDEN.  221 

hese  different  methods  of  propagation,  the  first  we 
shall  describe  is  that 

By  seeds,  which  has  two  objects ;  the  supply  of 
steins,  on  which  to  ingraft  or  inoculate  old  and  fa- 
vourite races  ;  and  the  production  of  varieties  which 
shall  be  entirely  new.  In  the  first  of  these  cases, 
sound  and  thriving  stocks  are  necessary  ;  and  these 
are  only  to  be  had*from  the  seeds  of  apples  grown 
on  healthy  and  vigorous  trees.*  In  the  other  case, 
it  is  not  enough  that  the  parent  plant  be  sound  and 
thriving ;  it  should  possess  those  properties  also 
which  the  cultivator  is  most  desirous  of  giving  to 
his  orchard :  such  as  bearing  abundantly,  giving  its 
fruit  early  in  the  season,  or  of  a  fine  flavour,  or  col- 
our, or  size,  &c.,  &c.  The  observance  of  these 
rules  is  indispensable  to  the  success  of  all  experi- 
ments made  of  this  method ;  and  is  so  because  the 
rules  themselves  are  founded  on  an  immutable  law 
of  nature,  that  vegetables,  like  animals,  transmit  their 
properties,  good  or  bad,  to  their  offspring. 

The  culture  of  the  seeds,  whether  intended  for 
stems  or  for  fruit,  will  be  the  same  for  the  first 
year.  Sow  them  in  autumn,  in  beds  of  light  mel- 
low earth  of  middling  quality ;  cover  them  an  inch 
thick  with  garden  mould;  and,  at  the  end  of  the 

Table  Apples. — Junating,  Prince's  Harvest,  Bough,  Summer 
Queen,  Early  Pearmain,  Summer  Rose,  Codling,  Maiden's 
Blush,  Hagloe  Crab,  Catiline,  Romanite  or  Rambo,  Fall  Pippin, 
Doctor  Apple,  Wine,  Late  Pearmain,  Burlington,  Greening, 
Bellflower,  Newark  Pippin,  Pennock,  Michael  Tienry,  Spitzen- 
bergh,  Newtown  Pippin,  Priestley,  Lady  Apple,  Carthouse, 
Tewkshury,  Winter  Blush. 

Cider  Apples. — Hewes's  Crab,  Grayhouse,  Winesap,  Harrison, 
Styre,  Roane's  White  Crab,  Gloucester  White,  Redstreak, 
Camptield,  American  Pippin,  Golden  Rennet,  Hagloe  Crab, 
Cooper's  Russeting,  Ruckman's  Pearmain. 

There  are  propagated  in  our  nurseries  several  new  varieties, 
obtained  from  seeds,  worthy  of  cultivation. — Editir. 

*  The  usual  method  of  employing  the  pumice  from  a  cider- 
mill  is  very  slovenly,  and  necessarily  rejects  all  discrimination 
between  good  and  bad,  sound  and  unsound  stems. 


222  GARDENING. 

year,  thin  the  plants  to  the  distance  of  a  foot  from 
each  other.  Such  of  them  as  are  intended  for  graft- 
ing or  budding  may  remain  in  the  nursery  till  these 
operations  have  been  performed :  but  those  cultiva- 
ted with  a  view  to  new  races  should  be  transplant- 
ed, and  in  rows  ten  feet  apart  every  way.*  Left  to 
themselves,  they  may  be  slow  in  producing  fruit ;  a 
circumstance  which  has  engage?!  artists  in  a  search 
after  means  which  should  bestow  upon  them  an  ar- 
tificial precocity.  These  divide  themselves  into  two 
classes  :  such  as  operate  exclusively  on  the  soil,  and 
such  as  apply  directly  to  the  plant.  If  the  young 
tree  abound  in  leaves,  branches,  and  suckers,  with 
a  bark  green,  smooth,  and  shining,  the  remedy  will 
consist  in  removing  from  its  roots  a  portion  of  the 
original  earth,  and  substituting  for  it  a  soil  contain- 
ing less  vegetable  food ;  such  as  sand,  gravel,  or 
schist,  &c.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  tree  be 
small  and  weak,  having  little  foliage  and  few  branch- 
es, and  a  bark  rough,  dry,  and  spotted,  there  is  rea- 
son to  suspect  that  its  want  of  fertility  is  occasion- 
ed by  a  want  of  nourishment,  and  we  must  hasten, 
by  reversing  the  management  just  laid  down,  to  give 
it  an  additional  supply  of  food.  As  belonging  to  the 
second  class  of  means,  we  may  enumerate  partial 
decortication,  piercing,  wiring,  grafting,  pegging,  cut- 
ting a  portion  of  the  roots,  &c.,  but  all  depending  on 
the  same  principle,  "  the  obstruction,  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree,  of  the  descending  sap."  Of  these, 
the  first  (which  has  got  the  name  of  ringing)  is  the 
most  ancient  and  best  recommended.  The  Romans 
were  well  acquainted  with  it,f  and  Du  Hamel  revi- 
ved its  use  in  France  about  the  year  1733,J  whence 
it  extended  itself  to  Holland  and  Germany. §  The 

*  Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening, 
t  Virgil  and  Golumella. 

j  Memoires  de  L'Academie  des  Sciences,  1788. 
<)  Works  of  Dederich  and   Diel.     Darwin's  Phytologia  de 
scribes  and  explains  it,  yet  it  was  considered  as  a  ne  w  discover? 


FRUIT    UARDEN.  223 

practise,  however,  never  became  general ;  probably 
from  discovering  that  the  intended  effect  was  not  al- 
ways produced,  and  that,  in  other  respects,  the  tree 
was  injured  by  tiie  process.  Still,  as  some  of  our 
readers  may  wish  to  make  the  experiment  for  them- 
selves, we  subjoin  the  following  directions :  "  Cut  out 
with  a  knife  a  ring  of  the  o,i;or  and  inner  bark.  If 
the  tree  be  large,  the  excision  should  be  made  in 
the  branches ;  but  if  small,  in  the  stock.  In  apple 
or  other  trees  bearing  kernel  fruit,  the  wound  should 
not  be  larger  than  will  fill  up  in  two,  or,  at  most,  three 
years  ;  and  in  peach  or  other  stone-bearing  fruit,  in 
one  year."*  The  time  for  doing  this  is  early  in  the 
spring,  and  before  the  sap  begins  to  circulate,  as  the 
rationale  of  the  practice  takes  for  granted  that,  '•  by 
preventing  the  descent  of  this  below  the  ring,  you 
accumulate  a  force  above  it,  which  shows  itself  in 
the  production  of  fruit  buds." 

Another  means  of  effecting  this  object  is  men- 
tioned by  Williams  (the  discoverer  of  it),  and  con- 
sists altogether  in  leaving  the  plant  to  throw  out 
lateral  shoots,  with  little,  if  any  restraint.  By  pur- 
suing this  method,  "  the  leaves  soon  take  that  pecu- 
liar conformation  which  is  necessary  to  the  produc- 
tion of  blossom  bads  ;  and  seedling  apples  give  fruit 
in  four,  five,  and  six  years,  instead  of  eight,  ten,  and 
even  fifteen,  as  is  the  case  by  the  usual  method  of 
planting  close  and  pruning  to  naked  stems. "f 

2.  Of  propagation  by  Cuttings. — Every  variety  of 
the  apple-tree  may  be  propagated  by  this  method, 
and  will  give  the  finest  fruit  in  the  smallest  com- 
pass for  many  years. |^  But  it  does  not  follow  that 

by  the  London  Horticultural  Society  as  late  as  1817!  (See  a 
paper  from  Dr.  Nohden  in  the  Transactions  of  that  year.)  And, 
what  is  hardly  less  extraordinary,  Hemphill,  a  German  clergy- 
man, claims  the  discovery  as  his  own  in  1815 ! 

*  Hort.  Trans.,  vol.  i.,  p.  108.  See  a  paper  on  Ringing,  by 
Williams. 

t  Idem.,  p.  333.  J  London's  Encyclopaedia. 

§  So  lar  as  our  experiments  indicate  Loudon  is  wrong.    Cut- 


224  GARDENING. 

all  the  varieties  adapt  themselves  equally  well  to  it. 
Cuttings  of  the  pippin,  of  the  rennet,  of  the  pear- 
main,  and  of  some  other  mbes,  t'onot  succeed  with 
the  same  facility  as  those  of  the  codlin  races ;  and 
between  these  there  is  some  difference.  The  vari- 
eties known  by  the  name  of  the  White,  the  Keswic, 
the  Burknot,  and  the  Carlisle,  are  best  fitted  for  it,  as 
they  produce  roots  sooner  and  in  greater  abundance 
than  the  others. 

Whatever  variety  we  employ,  care  must  be  taken 
in  selecting  the  cuttings.  Shoots  growing  on  top 
branches  are  not  so  good  as  side  shoots ;  and,  other 
things  being  equal,  the  nearer  these  can  be  got  to 
the  ground,  the  better  they  are,  having  in  them  more 
of  the  living  principle.  Another  rule  is  to  choose 
those  having  an  oblique  or  horizontal  direction,  rath- 
er than  such  as  grow  perpendicularly.  A  cutting  of 
eight  or  ten  inches  will  be  sufficiently  long ;  but,  as 
the  power  of  putting  forth  roots  is  found  to  reside 
principally  in  the  joints,  and  as  these  are  formed  of 
woods  of  different  ages,  we  must  remember  to  give 
to  the  cuttings  a  portion  of  both :  and  hence  the  rule, 
"  to  leave  to  one  of  six  or  eight  inches  of  the  wood 
of  the  present  year,  an  inch  or  half  an  inch  of  that 
of  the  last  year." 

The  time  for  planting  is  that  of  the  full  flow  of 
the  juices,  as  it  is  then  that,  being  most  strongly 
determined  downward,  they  will  soonest  form  that 
callus  or  ring  which  is  destined  to  become  the  ba- 
sis of  the  future  roots.  Nor  is  the  manner  of  plant- 
ing them  a  matter  of  indifference.  When  your  holes 
are  ready,  put  into  the  bottom  of  each  some  hard 
substance  (pieces  of  crockery  are  the  best),  and  so 
set  your  plants  that  they  shall  rest  on  these,  and 
not  on  the  earth  ;*  after  which,  fill  up  what  is  left  of 

tings  cannot  be  depended  on  for  propagating  the  apple  by  any 
mode  which  has  been  tried  in  our  climate.— J.  B 

*  "  The  Orange  and  Ceretonia,  &c.,  if  inserted  in  a  mere 
mass  of  earth,  will  hardly,  if  at  all,  throw  out  roots  ;  while,  if 


FRUIT   GARDEN.  225 

the  holes,  and  press  the  ground  closely  about  the 
plants.  They  must  now  be  covered  with  hand- 
glasses, shaded  in  hot  weather,  and  watered  and 
ventilated  occasionally  and  moderately.  In  August 
the  glasses  may  be  dispensed  with,  and  in  October 
the  cuttings  should  be  transplanted  to  the  nursery. 

3.  Of  propagation  by   Layers. — This    mode    was 
probably  suggested  by  observing  th?  habits  peculiar 
to  some  trees  and  shrubs  (as  the  laurel  and  the  cur- 
rant), of  pointing  their  branches  to  the  earth  ;  where, 
finding  an  habitual  moisture,  they  strike  root,  a«d 
become  distinct  plants.     In  imitating  this  natural 
process,  the  artist  notches  the  lower  side  of  the 
branch  he  employs,  buries  it  in  the  earth  three  or 
four  inches  deep,  and  keeps  it  down  by  a  wooden 
crotchet.     As  this  is  done  before  the  descent  of  the 
sap,  the  notch  operates  like  a  dam  or  obstruction 
to  the  descending  juices,  and  forces  them  into  a 
bulbous  form  and  granular  substance,  whence  are 
emitted  a  mass  of  roots  necessary  to  the   infant 
plant.     When  these  are   sufficiently  formed,  that 
part  of  the  bnyich  which  binds  them  to  the  stem  is 
severed,  and  the  layer  taken  up  and  transplanted. 

4.  Of  propagation  by  Suckers. — This  mode  is  never 
employed  but  to  obtain  a  supply  of  stems,  on  which 
to  ingraft  dwarfs   and  espaliers,  and  is,  of  course, 
confined  to  the  Paradise  and  Creeper  varieties.    All 
that  it  requires  is  to  dig  up  the  plants,  to  give  a  por- 
tion of  root  to  each,  to  shorten  the  stems  to  a  fourth 
or  a  half  of  their  natural  length,  and  to  set  them 
out  in  nursery  rows. 

5.  Of  propagation  by  Scions. — These  are  parts  of 
living  irees,  which,  when  inserted  in  others  of  the 
same  nature,  identify  themselves  with  them,  and 
grow  as  if  on  their  parent  stems.     The  objects  to 

inserted  at  the  sides  of  pots,  so  as  to  touch  them,  they  seldom 
fail  of  becoming  rooted  plants.  T.  A.  Knight  succeeded  well 
with  the  mulberry  in  this  way." — Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening, 
p.  444 


226  GARDENING. 

be  obtained  by  this  operation  (which  is  called  graft- 
ing) are  four,  viz.,  to  preserve  and  multiply  varie- 
ties of  known  and  acknowledged  merit ;  to  improve 
the  qualities  of  the  fruit  ;*  to  hasten  fructification 
in  trees  slow  in  bearing ;  and,  lastly,  to  render  bar- 
ren trees  fruitful.!  The  general  rules  which  guide 
in  the  operation  are  to  unite  varieties  of  the  same 
nature,  as  apples  and  quinces,  or  apricots  and  plums, 
&c.,  &c. ;  to  seek  a  resemblance  in  the  flow  of  the 
juices  and  the  permanence  of  the  foliage,  between 
the  scion  and  the  stock  ;  to  take  the  scion  from  lat- 
eral shoots,  and  from  the  last  growth  of  the  wood, 
and  at  a  proper  season  (which  is  during  the  winter) ; 
to  unite  exactly  the  inner  bark  of  the  scion  to  that 
of  the  stock,  and  to  do  this  when  the  sap  of  the  lat- 
ter is  in  full  motion.  The  age  of  the  stocks  is  reg- 
ulated by  the  character  they  are  to  bear :  if  intend- 
ed for  full  standards,  they  should  not  be  less  than 
three  years  old;  if  for  half  standards,  two  years 
old;  and  if  for  dwarfs,  one  year  old.  The  same 
rule  appears  to  have  determined  the  elevation  at 

*  Lord  Bacon's  opinion,  tharthe  office  oftne  stem  is  merely 
passive  and  subservient  to  the  scion,  is  received  with  much 
qualification  by  professional  horticulturists.  Millar  asserts  that 
"  crab  stocks  cause  apples  to  be  firmer  and  sharper,  and  to  keep 
longer;  and  that  breaking  pears  put  on  quince  stocks  give 
gritty  fruit;  while  melting  pears,  on  stocks  of  the  same  kind, 
give  fruit  highly  improved."  Neil  thinks  "the  qualities  of  the 
fruit  are  partially  affected  by  the  character  of  the  stock  on  which 
it  is  placed."  Thouin  necessarily  holds  the  same  opinion,  as  he 
recommends  grafting  on  a  graft  as  a  great  improvement  of  the 
fruit ;  and  Loudon,  in  his  Encyclopaedia,  gives  it  as  the  settled 
opinion  "  of  all  practical  men,  that  the  nature  of  the  fruit  is  in 
some  degree  affected  by  that  of  the  stock." 

t  Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening,  p.  783  ;  and  M'Donakl's  Ex 
periments.  If  trees  comparatively  or  absolutely  barren  be 
headed  down,  and  receive  two  or  more  scions,  the  roots  and 
sterns,  having  now  less  to  do,  will  nourish  the  grafts  well,  and 
soon  enable  them  to  bear  fruit.  But,  besides  this  effect  of  in- 
creased nourishment,  we  must  remember  that  grafting,  like 
ringing,  predisposes  to  the  production  of  fruit-buds  by  the  ob- 
struction it  gives  to  the  descending  sap. 


fRUIT    GARDEN.  227 

which  the  scions  are  to  be  inserted  ;  as  it  is  the 
general  practice  to  graft  standards  at  six  feet  from 
the  ground,  half  standards  at  three  feet,  and  dwarfs 
at  six  or  eight  inches:  but  both  Millar  and  Knighl 
recommend  low  grafting  in  preference  to  high,  "  in 
all  cases  where  the  durability  of  the  tree  is  an  ob- 
ject with  the  cultivator  ;"  and  our  own  experience, 
though  comparatively  small,  is  decidedly  with  them. 

6.  Of  propagation  by  Buds. — This  method  is  a 
modification  of  the  former,  and  differs  from  it  only 
in  this,  that  in  grafting  we  employ  a  shoot  already 
matured  into  wood  ;  and  in  budding,  a  shoot  in  em- 
bryo. The  rules  which  govern  in  this  case  are  to 
select  buds  from  lateral  shoots  only,  and  from  the 
middle  of  these  in  preference  to  either  extremity  ; 
to  take  them  in  moist  or  cloudy  weather,  or  (if  this 
condition  of  the  atmosphere  do  not  exist)  early  in 
the  morning  or  late  in  the  evening,  as  at  these  times 
the  perspiration  of  the  leaves  being  least  active,  the 
buds  will  suffer  least  by  the  operation.  If,  after  re- 
moving the  woody  part  (which  comes  off  with  the 
shield),  you  discover  a  hole  or  opening  under  the 
bud,  it  is  unfit  for  use,  having,  in  technical  language, 
lost  its  root.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  bottom  be 
sound,  lose  no  time  in  inserting  it  in  the  stock  on 
which  it  is  destined  to  grow  ;  and  in  doing  this,  pre- 
fer the  north  to  the  south  side  of  the  stem,  and 
smooth  and  shining  bark  to  that  which  is  dry  and 
spotted;  and  be  particularly  careful  to  cover  the 
edges  of  the  shield  with  the  bark  of  the  stem,  and 
to  tie  with  double  ligatures  ;  the  one  intended  mere- 
ly to  keep  the  bud  in  its  place,  the  other,  and  up- 
permost, to  obstruct,  in  some  degree,  the  ascent  of 
the  sap.* 

The  time  for  budding  is  from  the  first  of  July  to 
the  last  of  August ;  but  the  true  criterion  in  this 
respect  is  the  condition  of  the  bud,  and  of  the  bark 

*  Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening. 
18 


228  GARDENING. 

adhering  to  it.  When  the  first  is  full  and  verdant, 
and  when  the  last  separates  readily  from  the  stem, 
the  operation  cannot  be  ill  timed. 

7.  Of  propagation  by  mixing  the  farinas  of  different 
sorts. — This  mode  (which,  by-the-way,  is  only  a 
qualification  of  the  first)  is  of  late  discovery,  and 
has  not  yet  been  much  practised.  We  are,  howev- 
er, assured  that  it  has  already  produced  many  new 
and  excellent  varieties  ;  and,  according  to  Loudon, 
it  consists  "  in  cutting  out  the  stamens  of  the  blos- 
soms to  be  impregnated,  and  afterward,  when  the 
stigma  is  mature,  introducing  the  pollen  of  the  other 
parent."  By  this  process  the  discoverer  (Mr.  Knight) 
has  obtained  the  Doivnton.  red  and  yellow  Ingestrie, 
Grange.  JBnndgwood,  and  Siberian  pippins.  The  four 
first  named  of  these  were  produced  by  crossing  the 
orange  and  the  golden  pippin  ;  the  fifth  by  crossing 
the  golden  pippin  and  the  golden  Harvey :  and  the 
sixth  by  crossing  the  Siberian  crab  and  the  pear- 
main.*  The  only  important  rule  laid  down  for  this 
method  is  "  to  select  for  crossing  those  varieties 
whose  qualities  most  nearly  resemble  each  other ;" 
as  many  observations  show  that  where  the  differ- 
ence between  the  sorts  employed  is  great  (even  in 

*  This,  and  another  seedling  from  the  same  parents,  called 
the  yellow  Siberian,  are,  according  to  Knight's  test  (the  specific 
gravity  of  the  juices),  the  best  cider  apples  yet  known ;  "  the 
gravity  of  the  one  being  1079,  and  that  of  the  other  1085,  water 
being  'lOOO." — London's  Catalogue  of  Apples.* 

*  Subsequent,  probably,  to  Loudon's  publication,  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  juice  of  the  Downton  pippin  was  ascertained  to 
be  1080.    Mr.  Knight  also  produced,  in  1807-8,  two  new  varie- 
ties, the  Siberian  Harvey  and  the  Foxlty  Apple  ;  the  first  affording 
the  heaviest  juice  ever  known,  it  being  1091 :  that  of  the  latter 
was   1080. — See  Knight  on  the  Apple  and  Pear;    also"  Hints," 
<£c..  by  W.  Salisbury. 

The  celebrity  of  Mr.  Knight's  new  varieties  of  apples  induced 
me  to  send  to  England  for  them  in  1823 ;  and  I  have  now  grow- 
ing in  my  garden  the  Downton  and  Grange  pippins,  the  Siberian 
Harvey,  Foxley  Apple,  and  some  others  not  named  above.—  F,d 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  229 

point  of  size),  the  new  variety  produced  is  not  valu- 
able.* We  subjoin  to  these  remarks,  and  in  illus- 
tration of  them,  an  experiment  of  this  mode,  made 
by  a  distinguished  Scotch  agriculturist  (M'Donald), 
as  given  in  the  Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening,  page 
783.  "  In  1808  he  selected  some  blossoms  of  the 
Nonpareil,  which  he  impregnated  with  the  pollen 
of  the  golden  and  Newton  pippins.  When  the  ap- 
ples were  ripe,  he  selected  some  of  the  best,  from 
which  he  took  the  seeds,  and  sowed  them  in  pots, 
which  he  placed  under  a  frame.  He  had  eight  or 
nine  seedlings,  which  he  transplanted  inr.o  the  open 
ground  in  the  spring  of  1809.  In  1811  he  picked 
out  a  few  of  the  strongest  plants,  and  put  them 
singly  into  pots.  In  the  spring  of  1812  he  observ- 
ed some  of  the  plants  showing  fruit-buds.  He  took 
a  few  of  the  twigs  and  grafted  them  on  a  healthy 
stock  on  a  wall,  and  in  1813  he  had  a  few  apples. 
This  year  his  seedlings  yielded  several  dozens,  and 
also  his  grafts ;  and  he  mentions  that  the  apples  on 
the  grafts  were  the  largest." 

Having  indicated  the  varieties  of  the  appie-trec, 
and  the  means  of  continuing  these  and  of  produ- 
cing new  ones ;  the  selection  to  be  made  among 
them,  and  the  points  in  which  their  management 
may  differ,  we  proceed  to  what,  in  this  respect,  is 
common  to'  them  all,  viz.,  transplanting,  pruning, 
training,  thinning,  and,  lastly,  manuring,  or  other- 
wise altering  the  condition  of  the  soil.f 

Of  Transplanting. — This  process  is  sometimes 
repeated  twice  or  thrice  before  the  tree  is  perma- 
nently placed,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  Knight,  never 

*  Mr.  Kline,  the  anatomist,  &c.,  holds  the  same  doctrine  in 
relation  to  animals. 

t  The  French  make  a  distinction,  and  justly,  between  Vamende- 
ment  and  Vengrais,  for  which  we  have  no  corresponding  terms 
which  sufficiently  illustrate  the  distinction.  Ploughing,  harrow- 
ing, irrigating,  and  leaving  in  fallow,  are  among  the  amendemens 
(improvements) :  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  under  some  o* 
their  many  modifications,  constitute  Vengrais  (manures). 


230  GARDENING. 

to  its  advantage,  and  often  to  its  injury.  Our  own 
practice  is  to  work  the  stocks  as  soon  as  they  have 
attained  the  diameter  of  an  inch  in  the  seedbed, 
and  transplant  once  and  permanently ;  believing 
that,  though  repeated  removals  may  hasten  the  pro- 
duction of  fruit,  they  retard  the  general  growth  and 
development  of  the  plant,  and  sometimes  form  a 
crisis  in  its  health  from  which  it  never  recovers. 

The  rules  which  govern  in  this  operation  are  as 
follows :  Take  up  the  young  trees  with  as  little  in- 
jury to  the  icols  as  possible,  and  replant  them  with- 
out any  avoidable  delay,  in  holes  not  less  than  three 
feet  square,*  and  thirty  feet  apart ;  give  them  the 
same  depth  and  exposition  they  had  in  the  nursery; 
bring  the  earth  and  the  roots  into  full  contact,  and 
water  freely  till  the  young  trees  give  evidence  of 
having  taken  root  anew.  The  time  for  this  opera- 
tion is  during  any  mild  weather  in  the  spring,  before 
the  sap  has  got  into  motion ;  or  in  the  autumn,  after 
its  circulation  has  ceased. f 

Of  Pruning. — This  branch  was  originally  confined 
to  the  removal  of  dead,  or  diseased,  or  fractured 
wood ;  but  the  discovery  was  soon  made  that 
branches  might  do  mischief  from  their  position  as 
well  as  from  their  unsoundness  :  and  hence  the  rule, 
"  to  retrench  whatever  intercepts  the  rays  of  light,  or 
prevents  a  due  ventilation  of  the  tree."  The  next  step 
in  the  art  was  to  take  off  redundant  branches ;  as 
frequent  experiments  proved  that,  by  lessening  the 
quantity  of  wood,  that  which  was  left  was  made 
more  productive.  A  third  discovery  followed  :  that 

*  For  the  advantage  of  this  practice,  see  Cours  d' Agriculture, 
art.  Pecher. 

t  Each  of  these  seasons  has  its  advocates;  one  set  forbidding 
fall  planting,  because  the  high  winds  of  the  winter  shake  and 
fatigue  the  young  trees  ;  the  other  spring  planting,  because  a  dry 
and  warm  spring  will  destroy  them.  Our  own  practice  is  to 
employ  both  seasons  indiscriminately,  and  experience  justifies 
this  course. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  231 

straight  or  perpendicular  shoots  gave  little  and  bad 
fruit ;  while  those  pushing  at  angles  less  than  45  de- 
grees,* gave  fruit  abundantly  and  of  a  good  quality  : 
and  hence  the  rule,  "for  rigorously  suppressing  water- 
shoots  and  gluttons,  and  for.  encouraging  side-shoots 
growing  horizontally"  or  nearly  so,  in  relation  to  the 
parent  stem.  An  extension  of  the  principle  of  this 
rule  was  found  to  be  usefully  applied  to  side-shoots 
themselves :  and  hence  the  practice  "  of  heading 
these  down,  so  as  to  give  to  the  direction  of  their  future 
growth  new  and  artificial  angles ;"  for,  by  obstructing 
the  flow  of  the  sap,  and  compelling  it  to  travel  more 
slowly,  you  compel  it  also  to  throw  out  more  blos- 
soms, and,  consequently,  to  give  more  fruit. 

To  these  remarks  we  subjoin  a  few  others  on  this 
head. 

1.  Young  trees,  if  of  moderate  growth,  should  be 
pruned  early  in  the  spring  ;f  if  of  luxuriant  growth, 
later  in  the  season. 

2.  Established  and  bearing  trees  are  best  pruned 
in  the  fall ;  the  operation,  performed  then,  strength- 
ens the  tree,  and  tends  to  the  production  of  blossom 
buds. 

3  Superfluous  and  ill-placed  buds  may  be  rubbed 
off  at  any  time  ;  and  no  buds  pushing  after  midsum- 
mer should  be  spared. 

4.  The  number  of  shoots  to  be  retained  must  be 
limited  by  the  nature  of  the  tree,  the  size  of  the 

*  Cours  d'Agriculture,  art.  Courbure. 

f  From  some  years'  experience  in  summer  pruning,  say  late 
in  June  and  early  in  July,  we  are  disposed  to  give  it  a  prefer- 
ence over  autumn  or  spring  pruning.  At  either  of  the  latter 
periods  the  tree  is  divested  of  foliage,  and  the  wounds  are  ex- 
posed to  the  drying  and  corroding  influence  of  the  sun  and  winds  ; 
and  the  accustomed  flow  of  sap  in  the  spring  induces  the  growth 
of  a  multiplicity  of  new  sprouts.  At  midsummer  the  wounds 
are  shielded  by  the  foliage,  the  flow  of  sap  is  moderate,  and  the 
caubium,  or  elaborated  sap,  which  is  then  most  abundant,  soon 
covers  the  lips  of  the  wounds,  and  prevents  disease  and  decay. 


232  GARDENING.  t 

fruit,  and  that  of  the  head.  Trees  which  produce 
only  on  young  spurs  (as  the  apple-tree),  require  a 
larger  provision  of  this  sort  than  those  which  give 
fruit  for  several  years  in  succession  on  old  spurs. 

5.  In  choosing  between  the  shoots  to  be  retained, 
other  things  being  equal,  preserve  those  which  are 
lowest  placed,  and,  of  lateral  shoots,  those  which 
are  nearest  to  the  origin  of  a  branch. 

6.  The  retained  shoots  should  be  treated  accord- 
ing to  the  class  of  fruit-trees  to  which  they  belong. 
If  to  that  which  bears  on  distinct  branches  and  on 
old  spurs,  they  should  be  shortened  as  little  as  pos- 
sible, or  not  at  all ;  if  to  the  class  which  bears  on 
the  last  year's  wood  only  (as  the  apple,  apricot,  pear, 
cherry,  and  plum),  they  should  be  shortened  alter- 
nately, year  and  year  about,  so  as  always  to  furnish 
a  proper  supply  of  bearers ;  and  if  to  the  anoma- 
lous class  which  bears  on  both  kinds  of  spurs,  the 
treatment  should  be  of  the  mixed  kind,  partaking  of 
the  modes  severally  prescribed  for  the  two  other 
•classes,  and  in  proportion  as  the  shoots  may  indicate 
a  greater  or  less  assimilation  to  either  of  these.* 

7.  Shorten  strong  shoots  one  fourth,  and  feeble 
ones  one  half. 

Of  Training. — Many  observations  led  to  the  be- 
lief that,  though  the  apple  tree,  when  left  to  its  nat- 
ural form  and  bulk,  possessed  its  greatest  vigour 
and  productiveness,  and  was  in  the  condition  fittest 
for  large  and  permanent  orchards,  still  that  in  other 
forms,  and  on  feebler  stems,  and  under  a  treatment 
in  all  respects  more  artificial,  it  may  be  made  to 
give  fruit  of  an  earlier  sort,  of  a  larger  size,  and  of 
better  appearance.  Of  this  important  discovery 

*  Some  gardeners  are  in  the  practice  of  heading  down  old  and 
much  decayed  apple-trees  within  a  few  inches  of  the  ground. 
Forsyth  was  the  first  to  recommend  this  practice,  on  the  credit 
of  many  experiments  made  by  himself,  which  prove  that  trees 
so  managed  may  be  restored  to  vigour  and  fruitfulness. —  Sera  his 
work  on  Fruit  Trees. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  233 

horticulturists  were  not  slow  in  availing  them- 
selves, and,  as  in  many  similar  cases,  even  abused 
it;  for  hence  came  the  whole  family  of  dwarfs  and 
monsters,  so  fashionable  in  the  days  of  La  Quinteny 
and  D'Andilly,  and  of  which  some  specimens  may  yet 
be  found  in  different  parts  of  Europe.  However,  as 
experiments  multiplied,  and  science  and  good  taste 
increased,  a  medium  size,  and  forms  less  foreign 
from  vegetable  nature  than  those  of  the  lion  and  the 
stag,  the  distaff  and  the  urn,  were  brought  into  use, 
and  established  as  most  proper  for  garden  culture. 

In  forming  these  (to  which  have  been  given  the 
names  of  the  half  standard,  the  pyramid,  and  the 
espalier),  the  labour  necessarily  begins  in  the  nur- 
sery. The  stock  of  the  crab,  the  paradise,  or  the 
quince,  is  grafted  two,  three,  or  four  inches  from 
the  earth,  with  the  variety  you  wish  to  propagate. 
In  the  spring  of  the  second  year  after  grafting,  one 
of  two  methods  is  employed  to  form  the  head ;  ei- 
ther by  shortening  the  shoots  which  may  have 
pushed  from  the  graft,  or  the  graft  itself  to  the  third 
or  fourth  eye  from  its  root.  In  either  case,  a  growth 
of  more  vigorous  shoots  succeeds,  from  which  you 
select  your  main  or  leading  branches;  always  taking 
care  to  reject  those  which  are  spongy  and  over- 
grown, or  feeble  and  wiry. 

The  future  management  of  tiie  tree  will  necessa- 
rily be  regulated  by  its  destination.  If  intended  for 
a  standard,  your  labour  will  be  principally  confined 
to  the  removal  of  dead  or  dying,  and  redundant 
wood  ;  and  "  to  the  thinning  and  shortening  the  ex- 
terior parts  of  the  branches,  so  that  the  light  may 
everywhere  penetrate  into  the  head,  without  any- 
where passing  through  it."*  If,  on  the  other  hand., 
yon  mean  that  your  tree  shall  be  a  pyramid,  the  or- 
dinary mode  of  giving  this  form  consists  in  making 
the  oldest  and  lowest  branches  the  longest,  and  ia 

*  Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening. 


234  GARDENING. 

shortening  the  upper  and  younger  growths  gradual- 
ly to  the  top.  But.  against  this  practice  we  are  ad- 
monished by  a  British  writer  of  considerable  au- 
thority,* who  says  that,  "  when  applied  to  apple,  or 
pear,  or  other  trees  which  produce  their  fruits  at  the 
extremities  of  the  last  year's  wood,  the  conical  form 
is  both  absurd  and  ruinous  ;  since,  to  produce  or  pre- 
serve it,  we  must  necessarily  destroy  a  large  pro- 
portion of  fruit-buds."  The  terms  of  this  position 
p. .re,  however,  too  broad ;  for,  though  the  objection 
be  good  against  the  old  or  ordinary  method  of  pro- 
ducing this  shape,  it  fails  altogether  against  the  shape 
itself,  provided  any  mode  of  producing  it  be  found 
which  shall  leave  the  fruit-buds  untouched  ;  and  that 
such  mode  does  exist,  we  learn  from  another  writer 
of  the  same  nation,  and  of  equal,  if  not  higher  au- 
thority.! "  If,"  he  says,  "  the  graft  you  employ  be 
inserted  with  its  point  (or  terminal)  bud  perfect,  the 
branches  will  range  themselves  horizontally  and  in 
series,  and,  without  violence,  produce  all  the  effects 
(as  to  shape)  which  have  hitherto  been  produced  by 
pruning  and  training."  The  espalier  form,  if  that  be 
desired,  is  produced  by  selecting  two  healthy  shoots 
the  second  year  after  grafting,  which,  when  spread 
out,  like  the  ribs  of  a  fan,  against  an  open  frame, 
and  filled  up  within  by  lateral  shoots,  present  two 
surfaces,  the  one  in  front  and  the  other  in  rear,  for 
the  production  of  fruit.  The  knife  in  this  case  is 
only  used  in  keeping  these  surfaces  clear  of  dead, 
or  unhealthy,  or  fractured  wood,  and  in  removing  all 
shoots  other  than  those  growing  laterally. 
With  these  several  forms  may  be  associated  the 

*  Nicol. 

t  Hay  ward's  Principles  of  Gardening.  An  additional  author- 
ity in  favour  of  the  pyramidal  form  is  the  practice  of  those  em- 
inent botanists,  Thouin  and  Bosc,  in  the  national  gardens  at 
Paris  (the  Jardin  des  Plantes  and  the  Luxembourg).  It  is,  be- 
sides, the  form  generally  adopted,  if  we  mistake  not,  in  the 
schools  of  botany. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  235 

artificial  shelter  of  walls ;  which,  from  many  experi- 
ments made  in  the  most  crowded  parts  of  our  cities, 
are  believed  to  be  useful  in  maturing  fruits  of  many- 
kinds,  and  especially  to  such  as  are  of  southern  ori- 
gin and  delicate  constitution,  as  the  peach,  the  nec- 
tarine, the  fig,  &c.  The  rules  which  apply  to  this 
branch  of  the  art  are  few  and  simple,  and  will  be  re- 
served for  a  future  subject  (the  peach-tree),  as  one 
to  which  they  better  apply  than  to  the  apple-tree. 

Of  Thinning* — In  using  this  term,  we  confine 
ourselves  to  the  removal  of  superfluous  leaves  and 
fruit ;  an  operation  which,  though  proper  and  use- 
ful, must  be  cautiously  performed ;  as,  in  the  vege- 
table economy,  the  office  to  which  the  leaf  is  des- 
tined is  very  important :  being  the  supply  of  the 
plant  with  that  portion  of  its  subsistence  derived 
from  the  atmosphere.  We  know  of  no  purpose, 
therefore,  that  will  justify  us  in  stripping  off  any 
considerable  part  of  the  foliage,  unless  it  be  that  of 
maturing  fruit  and  wood,  which,  from  constitutional 
defects  or  a  faulty  situation,  would  not  otherwise 
ripen.  Peaches,  pears,  grapes,  and  some  varieties 
of  apples,  occasionally  come  within  this  description  ; 
and  though  the  process  may  not  be  equally  indispen- 
sable to  them  all,  yet  all  are  undoubtedly  improved 
by  it.  The  rule  which  governs  in  this  case  is,  "  to 
remove  such  leaves  as  shade  the  fruit,  so  soon  as 
this  has  attained  its  full  size,  and  begins  to  lose  its 
green  colour."  To  do  it  earlier  would  impair  the 
growth  of  the  fruit ;  and  to  do  it  rigorously  and  at 
once,  would  arrest  tha't  of  the  retained  shoots : 
whence  it  follows  that  "  the  thinning  must  be  grad- 
ual, and  at  two  or  more  different  times  during  the 
space  of  five  or  six  days."f  If  the  leaves  of  wall- 
trees  hang  longer  than  usual,  they  should  be  brushed 
off,  the  better  to  ventilate  and  ripen  the  young  wood ; 

*  Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening. 

t  Not  applicable,  or,  if  applicable, seldom  or  ever  practised  on 
the  farm. — J.  B. 


236  GARDENING. 

but,  in  doing  this,  we  must  be  careful  to  brush  up- 
ward and  outward,  and  never  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tions, as  in  that  case  we  could  not  fail  to  injure  the 
retained  buds. 

Thinning  the  fruit  is  also  an  important  operation ; 
since,  if  properly  managed,  it  has  the  direct  effect 
of  improving  both  the  size  and  the  quality  of  what 
is  left",  while,  at  the  same  time,  it  betters  the  condi- 
tion of  the  tree,  and  adds  greatly  to  its  longevity. 
Few  persons  have  been  such  negligent  observers  as 
not  to  have  remarked  the  proneness  in  apricot,  nee- 
tarine,  peach,  and  plum  trees,  to  set  more  fruit  than 
they  are  able  to  ripen.  It  is  true  that  this  exces- 
sive bearing  will  in  some  degree  cure  itself,  but  al- 
ways at  the  expense  of  the  tree  and  of  the  fruit  it 
actually  ripens ;  whence  the  economy  of  anticipa- 
ting nature,  and  relieving  her  from  the  labour  of 
sustaining  a  useless  and  abortive  progeny.  Bun, 
as  in  the  case  of  superfluous  leaves,  this  thinning 
should  be  performed  cautiously  and  at  different 
times.  "  If  the  fruit  be  thickly  set  over  particular 
parts  of  the  tree  only,  begin  by  taking  off  one  half 
from  such  parts ;  and  if  every  part  of  the  tree  be 
crowded,  take  off  the  same  proportion  from  the 
whole."  Revise  it  again  in  June,  and  finally  in  Ju- 
ly; taking  off,  at  each  of  these  revisions,  such  as 
may  be  usefully  spared.  On  healthy  and  full-bear- 
ing trees,  one  apple  of  large  size  to  every  square 
foot  of  the  superficial  contents  of  the  tree,  is  con- 
sidered a  just  proportion  ;  that  is,  a  space  of  fifteen 
feet  by  twelve  may  be  allowed  to  ripen  two  hundred 
apples  ;  and  if  the  fruit  be  small,  this  proportion  may 
be  increased  a  third  part.*  "  Many  persons,"  says 
Nicol,  "  may  think  that  thinning  to  this  extent  will 
be  excessive ;  but  I  wish  such  to  be  convinced  of 
the  propriety  of  doing  so  by  comparison.  If  they 
have  two  trees  of  a  kind,  healthy  and  well-loaded, 

*  Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening. 


FRUIT   GARDEN.  237 

thin  the  one  as  directed,  and  leave  the  other  to  it- 
self. It  will  be  found  that  the  tree  which  has  been 
thinned  will  produce  an  equal  or  greater  weight  of 
fruit,  and  this  incomparably  more  beautiful  and  high- 
er in  flavour.  The  operation  should  be  over  by  the 
time  the  fruit  is  half  grown  ;  for,  if  delayed  till  they 
are  nearly  full  grown!  and  beginning  to  swell  off  for 
ripening,  the  mischief  will  be  already  done,  both  to 
the  tree  and  to  the  fruit  which  is  retained." 

Of  Manuring,  and  otherwise  altering  the  condition 
of  the  soil. — We  have  said  that  apple-trees  grow 
well  in  a  great  variety  of  soils ;  but  it  by  no  means 
follows  that  they  affect  all  soils  alike.  A  substan- 
tial loam,  whose  substratum  is  dry,  is  that  in  which 
they  thrive  best ;  and  a  circumstance  which  is  not 
discouraging  to  the  agriculturist  is,  that,  should  he 
not  find  such  ready  made  to  his  hand,  he  can  him- 
self make  it  without  much  expense  of  time  or 
money.  Its  elements  are  cheap  and  abundant, 
being  sand,  clay,  and  vegetable  or  animal  matter  in 
a  state  of  decomposition.  Equal  proportions  of  the 
first  and  second  of  these,  and  a  smaller  quantity  of 
the  third,  will  give  a  soil  of  great  power  and  dura- 
bility, requiring  only  occasional  supplies  of  mould 
to  reinstate  what  of  that  may  be  taken  from  the 
mass  by  successive  croppings.  This  mould  is  it- 
self created  by  a  mixture  of  various  substances,  as 
dung,  ashes,  leaves,  weeds,  lime,  marl,  &c.,  fre- 
quently turned  and  thoroughly  rotted,  and  to  which, 
in  this  condition,  has  been  given  the  technical  name 
of  compost.  A  biennial  dressing  of  this,  applied  to 
the  whole  surface,  with  an  annual  and  careful  cul- 
ture of  some  esculent  plant  between  the  trees,  will 
bestow  on  the  latter  all  the  advantages  that,  in  our 
climate,  can  be  given  by  labouring  and  manuring 
the  earth. 

Apple,  like  other  fruit  trees,  have  their  enemies 
and  their  diseases.  All  excesses  of  heat  or  cold, 
wetness  or  dryness,  are  unfriendly  to  them ;  some- 


238  GARDENING. 

times  wholly  destroying  their  fertility  for  the  sea- 
son, at  others  seriously  injuring  it,  and  occasional- 
ly, though  rarely,  disorganizing  the  trees  them- 
selves. Many  insects  also  prey  upon  them,  attack- 
ing their  leaves,  blossoms,  fruit,  bark,  or  roots  ;  of 
which  the  Aphis  \rcmgera,*  the  curculio,  the  scara- 
beus,  &c.,  are  the  most  common  and  injurious; 
nor,  unfortunately,  do  we  know  any  specific  remedy 
against  these  evils. f  But,  after  all,  r^ay  not  our 
own  negligence  be  considered  as  the  most  fruitful 
source  of  many  others  of  a  similar  kind?  How 
often  do  ive  find  the  bark  of  fruit-trees  covered  and 
coloured  with  parasites,  in  the  form  of  mosses,  and 
lichens,  and  smiu,  which  a  small  degree  of  labour 
and  a  little  whitewash  would  entirely  and  promptly 
remove.;}:  How  patiently  do  we  look  on  and  see 
the  ravages  made  on  their  leaves  and  fruit-buds  by 
caterpillars  of  different  names  and  appearances, 
when,  if  we  visited  them  at  daybreak,  all  would  be 
found  at  home  and  asleep,  and  entirely  within  our 
reach  ?  And,  lastly,  how  various  and  fatal  are  the 
wounds  inflicted  on  stems  and  branches  (under  the 
name  and  pretence  of  pruning)  when  left  open,  as 
they  generally  are,  to  the  alternate  action  of  air, 
and  frost,  and  sunshine,  without  giving  them  even 
the  cheap  and  simple  covering  of  St.  Fiacre  1$ 

*  The  Eriosoma  mali  of  Leach.  This  insect  forms  the  excres- 
cences called  galls  on  the  stems  and  branches  of  trees.  "  W. 
Salisbury  gives  an  engraving  of  it,  as  it  appeared  through  a  mag- 
nifying glass,  eating  its  way  into  the  roots  of  a  tree ;  and  another 
of  the  same  insect  in  the  bug  state,  which  he  believed  to  be  the 
male." — Loudon,  p.  788. 

•f  Watering,  fumigation,  &c.,  are  the  remedies  usually  pre- 
scribed ;  but,  in  our  opinion,  "  a  judicious  management  of  the 
sub  and  surface  soil,  culture  and  pruning,  are  the  things  n.ost 
to  be  relied  upon." — Idem. 

$  The  best  wash  for  the  apple-tree  is  a  strong  ley,  to  be  ap 
plied  to  the  trunk  and  larger  branches  with  a  brush,  early  in 
June.  It  destroys  both  parasitic  plants  and  insects. — .1.  B. 

§  A  mixture  of  cow-dung  and  clay  is  called  in  France  (that 
land  of  saintsl  "  the  ointment  of  St.  Fiacre ;"  and  is,  in  the 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  239 

The  PEAR-TREE  (Pyrus  communis)  was  not  un- 
known to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
grows  spontaneously  in  the  forests  of  Europe  as 
high  as  the  51st  degree  of  north  latitude.  It  differs 
from  the  apple-tree  in  its  greater  tendency  to  a  py- 
ramidal form,  in  its  being  more  slow  in  arriving  at 
a  bearing  or  productive  state,*  and,  lastly,  in  its 
living  to  a  much  greater  age.f 

The  hardiness  of  the  tree  and  the  excellence  of 
its  fruit  have  recommended  it  to  general  cultiva- 
tion, as  might  be  inferred  from  the  very  great  num- 
ber of  its  varieties.  These,  which  in  the  time  of 
Pliny  amounted  to  thirty,  have  since  increased  to 
three  hundred ;  and,  if  Van  Mons  is  to  be  credited, 
to  even  double  that  number.  From  this  long  mus- 
ter-roll of  names  we  shall  select  a  few,  in  their  nat- 
ural order  of  ripening,  which  stand  highest  in  pub- 
lic estimation  for  dessert  and  culinary  uses,  and 
which  may  be  made  to  supply  our  tables  from 
July  to  March  :  The  Green  Chissel,  the  Red  Musca- 
dine, the  Avorat  or  Muscat  Robine,  the  Royale  d'Ete, 
the  Green  Yair,  the  Beurre  Rouge,  the  Messieur  Jean, 
the  Crassan,  the  Colmar,  the  Vergoleuse,  the  Wondei 
of  Winter,  the  Poire  d"1  Auch,  the  Brown  Beurre,  the 
Muscat  VAllemande,  the  Winter  St.  Germain,  and  the 
Bon  Chretien.^ 

As  these  varieties  do  not  reproduce  themselves 
from  the  seed;  as  the  plants  furnished  by  layers, 

opinion  of  the  best  horticulturists  of  that  country,  a  more  effi 
cient  coveiing  for  the  wounds  of  trees  than  the  complicated  and 
much-vaunted  mixture  of  Forsyth. 

*  Generally  from  15  to  18  years. — Cours  d'Agriculture,  art. 
Poirier. 

t  Knight  asserts,  that  the  variety  called  in  England  the  Bar- 
land  has  existed  from  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  and 
conjectures  that  the  Tanuton  Squash  (an  older  variety)  was  first 
known  in  the  beginning  of  the  16th. 

t  Du  Hamel  divides  the  varieties  known  in  his  day  into  two 
classes,  and  considers  them  all  as  proceeding  from  the  fecunda- 
tion of  the  wild  pear  by  the  quince. 

§  See  our  note  on  orchards,  p.  000. — J.  B. 


SJ40  GARDENING. 

cuttings,  and  suckers  are  very  indifferent ;  and  as 
seedlings  are  slow  in  giving  their  fruit,  it  follows 
that  the  pear  is  principally  propagated  by  scions 
and  buds.  These  are  placed  on  quince  or  pear 
stocks,  according  as  taste  or  interest  may  invite  to 
early  and  small  crops  of  fine  quality,  or  to  later 
and  more  abundant  ones  of  inferior  character.  In 
the  former  case,  the  stem  of  the  quince  must  be 
employed,  and  in  the  latter  that  of  the  common 
pear,  and  without  any  material  difference  in  the 
operation,  excepting  that  "  the  feebler  the  stem,  the 
nearer  to  the  earth  should  be  placed  the  scion  or 
the  bud." 

Notwithstanding  the  hardiness  ascribed  to  the 
pear-tree,  we  know  not  any  of  the  kernel  class  more 
readily  or  sensibly  affected  by  particular  conditions 
of  the  atmosphere.  A  moist  and  cold  spring,  a  wet 
summer,  and  a  rainy  autumn,  are  alike  unpropi- 
tious  to  it.  In  either  of  these  cases,  the  fruit  which 
does  not  rot  is  watery  and  tasteless,  and  when  all 
take  place,  the  evil  extends  to  even  a  second  year ; 
as,  according  to  the  observations  of  Coursette, 
"  long-continued  moisture  rarely  fails  to  convert 
fruit- buds  into  wood-buds." 

The  second  year  after  budding  or  grafting,  the 
plants  may  be  removed  to  the  places  where  it  is  in- 
tended they  shall  stand ;  and  as  the  manner  and 
time  of  doing  this  do  not  differ  from  those  already 
prescribed  for  the  apple-tree,  we  may  spare  our- 
selves and  our  readers  the  trouble  of  a  repetition 
of  our  directions  on  those  heads. 

"With  respect  to  exposition  and  soil,  though  the 
pear-tree  may  be  made  to  grow  anywhere,  still  it 
will  succeed  badly  on  the  north  side  of  hills  or  in 
stiff  dry  soils,  and  still  worse  on  those  which  rest 
on  a  wet  subsoil.  Some  of  its  later  and  finer  vari- 
eties require  and  deserve  a  deep  substantial  loam, 
occasionally  refreshed  with  a  dressing  of  well-rot- 
ted dung,  and  some  of  the  best  aspects  the  gardet. 
can  furnish. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  241 

Cultivated  as  standards  and  pyramids,  the  young 
trees  should  be  left  in  a  great  degree  to  regulate 
their  own  shape  ;*  and  if  interference  become  prop- 
er at  all,  it  should  be  conducted  under  two  rules, 
"  to  keep  the  middle  of  the  head  pretty  open,  and 
the  sides  well  balanced.11!  Trees  of  other  forms, 
and  intended  for  walls  and  espaliers,  require  more 
labour  and  management,  and  a  degree  of  both  sum- 
mer and  winter  pruning  ;  the  former  of  which  con- 
sists in  rubbing  off  all  fore-right,  ill-placed,  super- 
fluous, or  spongy  shoots,  before  they  become  so 
hard  as  to  render  the  use  of  the  knife  necessary ; 
while  the  latter  (performed  during  any  temperate 
weather  between  November  and  April)  is  conduct- 
ed on  the  general  rule  "  of  sparing  all  such  well- 
placed  and  thriving  laterals  as  may  be  necessary  for 
preserving  the  form  given  to  the  head  of  the  tree, 
and  of  cutting  away  all  others  close  to  the  branch 
from  which  they  grow."  If  the  older  wood  be  dis- 
eased or  redundant,  cut  this  away  also,  or  short- 
en it  down  to  some  healthy  and  promising  shoots. 
The  retained  branches,  if  growing  against  a  wall  or 
trellis,  should,  after  each  pruning,  be  laid  down  and 
nailed,  with  as  much  extension  as  can  conveniently 
be  given  to  them. 

Mr.  Knight's  mode  of  training  the  pear-tree  is  to 
leave  on  the  young  stock  two  lateral  branches  on 
each  side.  When  about  six  feet  high,  he  transplants 
the  tree  early  in  the  spring,  and  inserts  grafts  on 
each  of  the  laterals,  "  so  that  two  of  them  shall 
push  from  the  stem  about  four  feet  from  the  ground, 
and  two  others  from  the  summit,  the  ensuing  year. 

*  Knight  remarks  that,  in  general,  very  little  pruning  is  re- 
quired for  pear  standards  or  pyramids  ;  but  that  there  are  sorts 
which  form  heads  resembling  those  of  apple-trees,  and  that  for 
these  pruning  may  be  beneficial. 

t  To  produce  a  well-balanced  tree,  shorten  the  wood  of  the 
deficient  side,  and  leave  the  other  to  itself.  For  the  reason  ot 
this  rule,  see  a  note  on  the  art.  Apple-tree. 


242  GARDENING. 

The  shoots  produced  by  these  grafts,  when  about 
a  foot  long,  are  to  be  trained  downward,  the  lower 
ones  almost  perpendicularly,  and  the  upper  ones 
just  below  a  horizontal  line,  and  so  placed  as  to 
distance  that  the  leaves  of  the  one  will  not  at  all 
shade  the  other.  Continue  this  mode  of  training 
the  second  year,  and  in  the  third  you  may  expect 
an  abundant  crop  of  fruit."* 

When  an  old  tree  becomes  unproductive,  one  of 
•wo  methods  should  be  adopted :  either  to  cut  it 
down  within  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  from  the 
ground,  and  train  up  anew  some  selected  shoots 
which  may  have  pushed  from  the  stump  (which  is 
the  method  of  Forsyth),  or  "to  take  off  at  its  base 
every  branch  which  does  not  want  at  least  twenty 
degrees  of  being  perpendicular,  and  all  spurs  from 
such  other  branches  as,  by  this  rule,  will  be  left. 
Into  these  (the  retained  branches),  at  their  subdivis- 
ions, and  at  different  distances  from  their  bases 
quite  to  their  extremities,  grafts  must  be  carefully 
inserted,  which,  when  they  attain  sufficient  length 
(say  twelve  inches),  must  be  trained  downward  be- 
tween the  branches,  as  directed  in  the  preceding 
paragraph."! 

The  enemies  and  diseases  of  the  pear-tree  being 
those  of  the  apple-tree,  we  refer  the  reader  to  what 
has  been  said  in  relation  to  them  in  the  preceding 
article. 

The  QUINCE  (Pyrus  cydonia)  is  a  native  of  the 
southern  and  eastern  parts  of  Europe,  where  it  is 
much  cultivated  for  its  fruit,  which,  though  not  eat- 
able in  a  raw  state,  is  readily  converted  into  a  mar- 

*  We  have  varied  Mr.  Knight's  phraseology  a  little,  having 
wubstituted  the  form  of  a  precept  for  what  he  has  given  in  that  of 
an  experiment. 

t  Forsyth's  objection  to  the  practice  of  cutting  off  old  spurs, 
viz.,  "that  it  brings  on  the  canker,  and  renders  the  fruit  small 
and  spotted,"  would  admonish  us  against  the  employment  of 
this  method,  had  it  not  been  adopted  and  recommended  by  Mr 
Knight. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  243 

malade,  and  an  excellent  dry  paste,  to  which  is  giv 
en  the  name  of  catignac.  The  stem  is  also  employ- 
ed for  the  reception  of  apple  and  pear  grafts,  and 
has  the  property  of  giving  to  the  fruit  it  bears  great-. 
er  precocity,  an  increased  size,  and  an  improved 
flavour ,  but  with  this  drawback,  that  "  the  quantity 
is  small,  and  the  product  short-lived,  .as  the  age  of 
the  tree  seldom  exceeds  ten  or  twelve  years." 

The  varieties  of  the  quince  are  four :  the  pear 
quince,  the  apple  quince,  the  mild,  and  the  Portuguese  ; 
of  which  the  last  should  in  all  cases  be  preferred, 
being  hardier,  handsomer,  and  a  better  bearer  than 
the  other  sorts,  and,  what  we  consider  as  no  small 
additional  recommendation,  being  also  more  tena- 
cious of  its  fruit,  which  rarely  falls  from  mere  ri 
pening. 

Like  the  other  varieties,  this  is  propagated  by 
seeds,  layers,  suckers,  and  cuttings.  The  first  give 
the  finest  plants  ;  but  the  process  is  so  slow  as  of- 
ten to  exhaust  our  patience,  and  thus  raise  against 
it  formidable  objections.  Still,  as  some  may  wish 
to  make  the  experiment  for  themselves,  it  may  not 
be  improper  to  remark,  that,  when  seeds  are  em- 
ployed, they  should  be  fresh  and  plump,  and  sown 
in  a  bed  of  light  and  moist  soil,  having  a  southern 
aspect.  After  vegetating  in  the  spring,  the  plants 
should  be  thoroughly  hoed,  and  the  ground  about 
them  kept  clear  of  weeds  till  the  second  year,  when 
they  may  be  removed  to  the  nursery,  where,  with 
the  care  ordinarily  given  to  this  department  of  the 
garden,  they  will  do  well,  until  transplanted  to  the 
places  where  they  are  permanently  to  stand. 

Layers  from  the  quince  do  not  always  succeed, 
and  hence  it  is  that^ they  are  seldom  employed;  but 
his  is  not  the  case  with  cuttings,  which,  placed  in 
a  soil  and  situation  proper  for  them  (moist  and  sha- 
ded), rarely,  if  ever,  fail.     Taken  in  the  spring,  they 
are  set  out  in  the  nursery  at  the  distance  of  fifteen 
or  eighteen  inches  apart;  and,  if  intended  for  pear 
19 


244  GARDENING. 

or  app^e  stocks,  are  grafted  early  the  ensuing  yeai. 
In  this  case  the  ceil  dormant,  within  a  few  inches 
of  the  earth,  is  the  species  of  graft  ordinarily  em- 
ployed. But  it  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that,  from 
causes  not  obvious  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowl- 
edge, some  of  the  varieties  of  the  pear  submit  qui- 
etly to  this  operation,  and  even  thrive  under  it,  while 
others  will  not  survive  it.  Of  the  former  descrip- 
tion are  the  Vergoleuse  and  the  Beurre;  and  of  the 
latter,  the  Bon  Chretien,  Bergamot  of  England,  Sal- 
viati,  the  pound  pear,  and  the  Quenois.*  The  rea- 
son assigned  by  naturalists  is  the  difference  of 
strength  between  the  stem  and  the  graft,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  feebleness  of  the  quince  stock. 
But  what  has  a  tendency,  at  least,  to  lessen  our 
confidence  in  this  theory  is,  thafc  the  Vergoleuse 
and  the  Beurre  are  both  placed  among  the  hardy 
varieties,  and  yet  do  well  on  stems  of  this  kind. 

In  propagating  for  stocks,  remove  the  lower 
shoots,  and  preserve  the  stem  clean  as  high  as  the 
graft.  When  the  fruit  of  the  quince  is  the  object 
of  culture,  train  the  stem  to  a  rod  or  stake  until  it 
reach  the  height  of  four  or  five  feet,  or,  in  other 
words,  till  it  be  able  to  support  itself.  The  time  of 
planting,  mode  of  bearing,  and  general  culture,  are 
those  already  described  for  apples  and  pears. 

The  ALMOND-TREE  (Amygdalus). — Of  the  six  or 
seven  species  of  this  tree  known  to  botanists,  there 
is  but  one  that  would  at  all  repay  the  expense  and 
trouble  of  cultivation  here,  and  this  is  the  Amyg- 
dalus  communis,  or  common  almond. f  Its  varie- 
ties, which  amount  to  six  or  eight,  are  distinguish- 
ed by  some  quality  of  the  shell  or  of  the  fruit,  as 
the  hard  and  the  soft,  the  bitter  and  the  sweet ;  or 
by  names  arbitrarily  given,  as  the  peach,J  the  pis- 

*  Cours  d'Agriculture. 

t  All  the  different  species  are  natives  of  Asia  and  Africa. 

t  This  variety  is  supposed  by  Knight  to  be  the  Tuberes  of 
Pliny,  produced  by  dusting  the  stigma  of  the  almond  with  the 
pollen  of  the  peach. — Hort,  Trans.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  4. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  245 

tachio,  the  cornichon,  and  the  sultana.  Of  these, 
the  last  and  the  sweet  almond  of  Du  Hamel  and 
Forsyth  are  the  sorts  most  esteemed. 

Like  the  apple,  &c.,  the  almond-tree  is  propaga- 
ted by  seeds  when  new  varieties  are  sought  for,  and 
by  buds  when  old  ones  are  to  be  continued.  Graft- 
ing is  rarely  practised,  and  never  with  good  effect, 
from  the  loss  of  gum  inseparable  from  the  wound 
it  inflicts.  Whence  it  follows  that,  in  moist  soils, 
the  plum  stock,  and  in  dry  soils,  that  of  the  peach 
or  of  the  bitter  almond,  are  employed  as  stocks. 

The  best  time  for  sowing  is  in  the  spring;  and 
the  seeds  selected  should  be  those  which  have  been 
taken  from  ripe  fruit,  and  carefully  buried  in  some 
dry  and  cool  place,  to  prevent  evaporation.  When 
put  out  in  the  nursery  they  should  be  placed  with 
the  sharp  ends  downward,  in  rows  two  and  a  half 
feet  apart,  and  kept  free  from  weeds.  As  soon  as 
the  young  plants  show  themselves,  cover  them  du- 
ring the  hot  weather  with  straw,  and,  when  four  or 
five  feet  high,  inoculate ;  when  they  are  three 
years  old,  transplant  them  into  the  fruit  garden  or 
the  shrubbery,  as  you  may  think  best.  In  either 
place,  annually  labouring  the  earth  around  the  roots 
will  be  useful. 

The  cultivation  of  this  tree,  under  circumstances 
favourable  to  it,  is  very  profitable  ;*  but  it  must  not 
be  dissembled,  that  in  our  climate,  whether  northern 
or  southern,  it  does  not  succeed.  In  the  former, 
the  early  production  of  its  blossoms  (which  always 
precede  the  leaves)f  greatly  expose  it  to  frosts,  the 
slightest  of  which  are  sufficient  to  destroy  it ;  and 
in  the  latter,  from  causes  not  sufficiently  explored, 
"  the  fruit  falls,"  as  we  are  informed  by  Bosc,  "  be- 

*  '•  The  profits  of  this  culture  in  the  south  of  France  are  not 
so  great,  but  more  certain  than  those  arising  from  the  culture 
of  the  olive." — Bosc. 

t  There  is  but  one  exception  to  this,  the  sultana,  a  sub-vari- 
ety of  the  tender  shell. 


246  GARDENING. 

fore  it  ripens."  With  us,  therefore,  the  manage- 
ment of  the  tree,  both  with  regard  to  soil  and  expo- 
sition, mu^t  differ  from  that  ordinarily  prescribed; 
and,  instead  of  giving  to  it  a  dry  and  warm  sand,  a 
southern  aspect,  and  a  wall  to  reflect  the  heat,  we 
must  be  careful  to  employ  means  which  shall  have 
the  effect  of  retarding  vegetation.  These  are.  bud- 
ding on  the  plum  instead  of  either  the  peach  or  the 
almond  stock  ;  avoiding  a  southern  aspect ;  planting 
in  a  soil  poor  and  moist,  and  always  in  the  open 
air,  and  without  the  shelter  of  walls,  fences,  or  hills  ; 
exposing  the  roots  to  the  action  of  the  frost  during 
winter;  covering  them  with  a  thick  coat  of  straw 
during  the  hot  days  of  the  spring  ;  and,  lastly,  an- 
nular excisions  made  in  the  bark. 

The  APRICOT  (Prunus). — The  origin  of  this  tree 
has  been  somewhat  contested.  On  the  supposition 
that  it  was  a  native  of  Armenia,  the  botanists  have 
called  it  the  Prunus  Armeniaca.  Pallas,  however, 
claims  it  for  the  region  of  the  Caucasus  ;  Grossier 
for  the  barren  mountains  west  of  Pekin  ;  Thunberg 
for  Japan;  and  Regnier  for  the  banks  of  the  Niger; 
while  Olivier  finds  it  growing  spontaneously,  with- 
out care  or  culture,  in  Asia  Minor  and  in  Persia. 
The  date  of  its  introduction  into  Europe  is  not  bet- 
ter ascertained  than  its  origin  ;  but  the  presumption 
is  that  this  was  very  remote,  as  the  tree  was  known 
in  Italy  in  the  time  of  Dioscorides,  and  was  culti- 
vated in  France  (as  we  learn  from  Thouin)  when 
that  country  was  a  Roman  province. 

As  in  the  case  of  other  fruit-trees  long  subjected 
to  cultivation,  its  varieties  are  numerous  ;  and  many 
of  them  so  imperfectly  distinguished  from  each 
other,  that  their  imputed  differences  sometimes  es- 
cape the  observation  of  even  practised  horticultu- 
rists. The  varieties  best  ascertained  and  most  es- 
teemed, .are, 

1.  The  early,  principally  recommended  by  its  pre- 
cocity, and  by  the  circumstance  that  the  stones 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  247 

never  fail  to  give  fruit  resembling  in  all  respects 
that  of  the  parent  tree. 

2.  The   Angumois,  distinguished   by  the    oblong 
form  of  its  fruit ;  by  a  flesh  rich,  juicy,  and  slightly 
acid ;  and  by  the  abundance  of  its  aroma.     This 
tree  attains  to  great  perfection  in  the  southern  parts 
of  Europe,  thrives  best  in  a  calcareous  soil,  and  in 
an  open  and  thoroughly  ventilated  situation;  bears 
badly  the  neighbourhood  of  walls,  and  entirely  re- 
fuses the  discipline  of  the  espalier. 

3.  The  common,  recommended  alike  by  its  vigor- 
ous growth,  its  hardness,  and  productiveness.     The 
fruit  is,  howeuer,  less  rich  and  less  aromatic  than 
that  of  other  varieties. 

4.  The  Dutch. — The  stem  of  this,  if  left  to  itself, 
is  apt  to  be  feeble  or  diseased ;  and  hence  it  is  that 
we  generally    find   this  variety   grafted   on   plum 
stocks.     Its   fruit,  like   that  of  the  Angumois,  is 
nealy  spherical,  juicy,  and  high  flavoured,  and  (when 
the  tree  has  a  good  exposition,  and  is  otherwise 
well  managed)  attains  to  a  considerable  size. 

5.  The  Portuguese. — The  fruit  of  this  sort  is  small 
and  round,  but  abounding  in  juices,  and  very  high 
flavoured. 

G.  The  Alexandrian  gives  a  fruit  particularly  adapt- 
ed to  confitures  and  marmalades ;  as  its  own  sugar 
is  nearly  sufficient  for  its  preservation.  The  objec- 
tion to  the  tree  is  its  precocity  and  tendernesss,  as 
it  blossoms  early,  and  blights  under  the  smallest  de- 
gree of  frost. 

7.  The  Breda  is  an  excellent  variety,  does  well  in 
England,  and  would  probably  do  better  here.     The 
fruit  is  large  and  round,  of  a  deep  yellow  colour, 
with  a  pulp  soft  and  juicy.     The  tree  is  a  great 
bearer,  especially  in  the  standard  form,  to  which  it 
seems  to  be  particularly  adapted. 

8.  The  Brussels  gives  a  fruit  of  medium  size,  in- 
clining to  an  oval  form,  the  flavour  fine,  and  the  pulp 
not  liable  to  dryness  or  toughness.     The  tree  is  a 


248  GARDENING. 

great  bearer,  and,  like  the  apricot  of  Breda,  is  well 
adapted  to  the  standard  form. 

9.  The  Moor  Park  or  Peach,  rarely,  if  ever,  met 
with  in  this  country ;  a  fact  the  more  extraordinary, 
as  many  circumstances  conspire  to  give  it  a  decided 
preference  over  all  the  other  varieties.  The  tree 
is  large,  vigorous,  and  hardy,  and  is  propagated  like 
the  kind  first  named,  from  the  stone,  without  risk 
or  trouble  of  grafting  or  budding;  it  does  well  either 
as  a  standard  or  espalier,  and  gives  fruit  in  great 
abundance  and  of  an  excellent  quality.* 

The  apricot  is  multiplied  in  various  ways,  but 
principally  by  seeds  and  budding.  If  we  employ 
the  former  of  these  methods,  not  a  moment  should 
be  lost  after  the  fall  of  the  fruit  in  placing  the 
stones  in  the  earth  ;  nor  should  we  omit  for  a  single 
day  to  water  them  after  they  are  planted.  With- 
out an  observance  of  these  rules,  the  pits  or  seeds 
shrivel  or  become  rancid ;  and  in  either  case,  the 
power  of  germination  (which  in  the  apricot  is  nat- 
urally feeble)  is  always  impaired  and  often  destroy- 
ed. Sow  also  in  the  lines  and  at  the  distances  at 
which  the  trees  are  permanently  to  stand,  whether 
as  wall  fruit  or  standards ;  for,  by  so  doing,  the 
plants  will  have  more  and  stouter  roots,  be  better 
assured  against  high  winds  (which  always  fatigue 
and  often  destroy  them),  give  their  fruit  sooner,  and 
escape  the  many  hazards  of  transplantation.! 

We  have  just  suggested  that  the  stone  of  the 
apricot  is  slow  in  giving  signs  of  life  ;  and  we  may 
add  that,  when  it  does  give  them,  it  requires  several 
years  to  render  the  planj;  strong,  healthy,  and  pro- 
ductive. This  last  is  probably  the  circumstance 
that  has  decided  nursery-men  in  favour  of  the  other 
(or  budding)  method  of  propagation,  as  by  this  they 

*  Catalogue-makers  unite  in  giving  this  variety  the  prefer- 
ence.— See  Loudon,  &c.,  &c. 

t  Manage  this  as  we  may,  still  there  is  a  hazard  in  it.  and 
particularly  so  with  regard  to  the  apricot. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  249 

obtain  fruit  in  half  the  time  necessary  in  -he  pre- 
ceding process.  Almond  or  pium  stocks  are  gen- 
erally employed  for  stems  ;  and  of  the  latter,  those 
of  the  two  varieties  called  the  Cerisette  and  St.  Ju- 
lian are  the  most  approved.  Knight,  however,  pre- 
fers budding  the  Moor  Park  on  the  common  apri- 
cot ;  and  gives  as  a  reason  for  doing  so,  that,  "  thus 
managed,  he  finds  the  trees  do  not  become  debili- 
tated or  diseased  as  when  budded  on  plum  stocks.* 

In  selecting  plants  from  the  nursery,  take  those 
of  three  years  in  preference  to  such  as  are  either 
older  or  younger;  and  those  having  a  single  stem 
to  such  as  have  two  branches.  On  this  last  point 
Forsyth  goes  so  far  as  to  recommend  lopping  off 
one  branch  where  the  tree  may  happen  to  have 
two :  "  as,"  he  adds,  "  if  both  be  retained,  the  mid- 
d}e  space  between  them  will  be  naked." 

Apricots  are  often  trained  against  walls  (for  the 
general  reason  of  sooner  and  better  maturing  the 
fruit) ;  and,  when  so  managed,  will  no  doubt  bear 
much  earlier  than  in  the  standard  form.  But  to  this 
process  there  is  a  serious  objection,  arising  from 
the  frequent  and  severe  pruning  which  it  renders 
necessary,  and  the  ill  effects  of  this  on  the  health 
and  longevity  of  the  tree.  On  the  other  hand,  if  set 
out  and  managed  as  standards,  though  much  of  this 
injurious  discipline  will  be  avoided,  and  though  in 
the  result  we  shall  have  abundant  fruit  and  of  fine 
flavour,  still  we  are  compelled  to  wait  long  for  it, 
generally  eight,  and  sometimes  ten  years.  Influen- 
ced by  these  considerations,  the  well-instructed  hor- 
ticulturist takes  a  middle  course ;  plants  his  apri- 
cots in  a  border;  leaves  them,  in  a  great  degree,  to 
regulate  themselves  as  to  shape ;  uses  the  knife 
only  to  get  rid  of  dead  or  diseased  wood  ;  rubs  off 
the  fore-right  and  superfluous  buds  while  in  a  her- 
baceous state,  and  trains  the  retained  shoots  to  a 

*•  Hort.  Trans.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  19. 


250  GARDENING. 

trellis,  so  placed  as  almost  to  touch  the  south  side 
of  the  wall.  By  these  means  he  secures  the  advan- 
tages of  both  methods,  and,  at  the  same  time,  either 
entirely  avoids  or  so  qualifies  their  defects,  as  to 
render  them  of  little  importance. 

The  fruit  is  often  attacked  by  flies  and  wasps,  and 
is  best  protected  against  these  by  nettings.  Insects 
do  not  appear  to  do  much  injury  to  the  tree  itself, 
probably  owing  to  the  roughness  of  its  bark  and  the 
coriaceous  nature  of  its  leaves. 

The  CHERRY-TREE  (Cerasus). — This,  like  most  of 
our  other  fruit-trees,  is  a  native  of  Asia,  and  was 
first  brought  to  Italy  from  the  town  of  Oerasunt* 
by  the  Roman  general  Lucullus.  Its  cultivated  va- 
rieties are  about  forty  in  number,!  and  are  divided 
by  the  French  botanists  into  three  races,  to  which 
they  have  given  the  names  of  the  bigarrotier,  the 
griottier,  and  the  guignier.  The  fruit  of  the  first  is 
distinguished  by  its  hard  and  fleshlike  substance ; 
that  of  the  second  by  its  juiciness  and  tenderness  ; 
and  that  of  the  last  by  its  comparative  sweetness. 
Subjoined  is  a  list  of  such  of  the  varieties  (placed 
in  their  natural  order  of  ripening)  as  may  be  most 
worthy  of  attention:  The  May  Duke,  the  Early 
Slack  (a  cross  made  by  Knight  between  the  Graf- 
fian  and  the  May  Duke),J  Ronald's  Large  Slack 
Heart,  Frazier's  Tartarian,  the  Elton  (another  new 
variety  produced  by  crossing  the  Grafimn  and  the 
White  Heart),  the  Bleeding  Heart,  Harrison's  Heart, 
the  Cerone,  the  Slack  Gean,  the  Florence,  the  Amber 
Heart,  and  the  Morello. 

The  cherry-tree  is  propagated  both  by  ;>eeds  and 

Hence  the  generic  name  of  Cerasus. 

t  The  Luxembourg  Catalogue  contains  forty-two. 

J  Hort.  Trans.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  212.  "  The  cherry  sports  more  ex- 
tensively in  variety  when  propagated  from  seeds,  than  any  other 
fruit  that  I  have  subjected  to  the  experiment,  and  probably  is 
therefore  capable  of  nttainiui;  to  n  higher  decree  of  perfection 
than  it  has  yet  reached."- -Knigh*  Ww"-  ''Vans.,  vol.  ii ,  p.  13S 


FRUIT  GARDEN.  251 

suckers  when  stems  are  wanted ;  by  seeds  alone 
when  new  varieties  are  required  ;*  by  scions  when 
you  have  to  work  on  old  subjects ;  and  by  buds 
when  your  trees  are  young.  If  intended  for  dwarfs, 
bud  your  plants  at  two,  and  if  for  standards,  at  four 
years  of  age.  The  spring  succeeding  this  operation 
is  the  time  for  transplanting,  which  should  be  done 
carefully,  and  in  the  manner  prescribed  for  setting 
out  apple-trees.  The  fashion  or  form  of  the  trees 
will  direct  the  distance  at  which  they  are  to  stand 
from  each  other :  between  standards  this  should  not 
be  less  than  thirty  feet;f  and  between  pyramids  and 
espaliers  not  less  than  twenty. 

Though  in  our  climate  all  the  varieties  of  the 
cherry-tree  do  well  as  standards  and  pyramids,  and 
are,  therefore,  generally  and  properly  cultivated  in 
these  forms,  still  it  may  be  useful  to  remark  that 
two  of  them,  the  May  Duke  and  the  Morello,  when 
trained  against  walls,  give  fruit  not  only  of  greater 
precocity,  but  of  much  finer  flavour ;  a  circum- 
stance in  which  they  differ,  not  only  from  other  va- 
rieties of  their  own  races,  but  from  fruit-trees  of  all 
other  kinds. J 

As  the  cherry  grows  on  small  spurs,  pushing  from 
the  sides  and  ends  of  two,  three,  and  four  year  old 
wood,  and  as  the  procession  of  new  buds  is  con- 
stant, it  follows,  as  a  general  rule,  that  "the  knife 
must  be  sparingly  employed ;"  and  as  a  particular 
one  in  relation  to  wall-trees,  that  "  bearing  branches 
are  not  to  be  shortened  if  room  can  be  found  for 
extending  them."§  These  rules,  however  rigorous- 
ly executed,  must  not  prevent  summer  pruning  (which, 

*  The  seeds  employed  should  be  taken  from  ripe  fruit,  com 
mitted  promptly  to  a  bed  of  sand,  and  kept  in  a  dry  and  cool 
place  till  the  spring,  when  they  may  be  set  out  in  rows  two  and 
a  half  feet  apart. 

t  Millar  thinks  the  distance  should  be  forty  feet. 

t  Nicol. 

§  Abercrombie's  Art  of  Pruning. 
20 


252  GARDENING. 

as  already  stated,  consists  in  rubbing  off  redundant 
or  ill-placed  buds),  nor  that  of  winter,  if  confined  to 
the  removal  of  fractured  or  unsound  wood,  or 
branches  too  much  multiplied  or  crossing  each  oth- 
er.* The  nature  of  the  Morello  will,  however,  ren- 
der it  an  exception  to  the  general  rule  here  recom- 
mended; for,  instead  of  bearing,  like  other  varie- 
ties, on  two,  three,  and  even  four  year  old  wood,  its 
fruit  is  generally  produced  on  shoots  of  the  last 
year,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  on  even  two  year  old  wood. 
Whence  it  follows  that,  with  regard  to  this  variety, 
our  aim  in  both  summer  and  winter  pruning  ought 
to  be  "  a  removal  of  old  and  a  provision  of  new 
bearers." 

In  renovating  an  old  tree  pursue  Forsyth's  meth- 
od ;  shorten  it  to  a  stump  not  more  than  18  inches 
high ;  remove  the  old  soil  from  the  roots ;  replace  it 
with  that  of  upland  pasture,  on  a  layer  of  stone  or 
some  other  impervious  body,  two  feet  below  the 
surface,  and  encourage  a  single  shoot. 

Cherry-trees  in  general  are  not  much  affected 
by  insects.  Of  this  class  the  red  spider  is  their 
greatest  enemy  in  England ;  and  in  Scotland  an  in- 
sect called  the  black  beetle,  which  Naismith  found 
the  means  of  killing  "  by  burning  under  the  trees  a 
mixture  of  pitch,  orpiment,  and  sulphur,  and  then 
giving  them  a  good  washing  with  the  garden  en- 
gine." Birds  are  here  a  more  potent  enemy;  and 
the  best  remedy  against  them  are  old  fishnets 
thrown  over  the  trees,  clapboards,  scarecrows,  and 
fusees. 

The  PEACH-TREE  (Amygdalus  Persica)  is  a  native 
of  Asia,  and  was  first  brought  to  Rome  during  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Claudius.f  A  circumstance 
worth  remarking  in  even  our  short  notice  of  its  his- 


*  Caledonian  Memoirs,  vol.  i,  p.  427. 

t  Mentioned  by  Columella  (in  his  work  on  Gardens),  and  also 
y  Pliny. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  253 

tory  is,  that  the  product  of  the  species  or  variety 
then  introduced  was  believed  to  be  poisonous,  and 
gave  to  the  tree  a  very  bad  reputation,  which  yield- 
ed, however,  to  experiments  more  carefully  made, 
and  to  the  acknowledged  fact  that  in  Egypt,  where 
also  it  had  become  an  object  of  culture,  the  fruit 
was  equally  wholesome  and  delicious.* 

The  early  botanists  divided  this  family  into  two 
classes :  the  one  giving  a  fruit  with  a  downy  skin, 
which  they  called  a  peach ;  the  other  a  fruit  with  a 
smooth  skin,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  nec- 
tarine. But  as  it  was  soon  ascertained  that  the  same 
tree  did  occasionally  produce  both  sorts  at  the  same 
time,f  later  writers  have  rejected  the  distinction,  and 
considering  them  as  the  same  fruit,  have  arranged 
them  simply  into  the  downy  and  the  smooth  with 
a  free-stone,  and  the  downy  and  the  smooth  with 
a  cling-stone. 

The  sub- varieties  of  both  classes  are  numerous ; 
and,  as  they  afford  much  choice,  the  selection  be- 
tween them  ought  to  be  made  with  care,  and  under 
two  leading  views :  1st,  to  secure  a  succession  of 
fruit  throughout  the  season ;  and,  2d,  to  do  this  by 
employing  the  sorts  which  will  best  adapt  them- 
selves to  the  climate.  In  making  up  the  following 
list,  we  have,  therefore,  taken  only  those  sub-varie- 
ties which,  under  different  modes  of  cultivation,  have 
succeeded  in  latitudes  even  higher  than  our  own. 
1st,  the  Early  Purple  (Pourpre  hative  of  Du  Ha- 
mel) ;  2d,  Grosse  Mignone ;  3d,  Belle  Chevreuse ;  4th, 
Royal  Chariot ;  5th,  Double  Mountain ;  6th,  Bellegarde 

*  Knight  conjectures,  and  with  great  probability,  that  this 
first  importation  to  Rome  was  the  Svjollen  Almond,  which  is 
known  to  contain  much  prussic  acid.  Olivier  brought  the  Wild 
Peach  of  Persia  to  Paris ;  where,  on  cultivation,  it  gave  fruit 
much  resembling  the  Avant  Peche  Blanche,  or  what  the  English 
call  the  White  Nutmeg. 

t  See  Salisbury's  short  account  of  nectarines  and  peaches 
produced  on  the  same  branch,  in  vol.  i.,  p.  103  of  the  Hort 
Trans. 


254  GARDENING. 

orGalande;  7ih,Late  Violet;  8th,  Royal  Kensington  ; 
9th,  the  Incomparable,  or  Pavie  Admirable  ;  10th,  the 
Pavie  Rouge  de  Pomponne ;  llth.  the  Yelloiv  Admira- 
ble, or  peach  having  the  apricot  flavour :  and  (of  the 
nectarine  tribe),  12th,  the  Elruge ;  13th,  Fairchild's 
White;  14th,  Temple's;  15th,  the  Scarlet;  16th,  the 
Early  Newington ;  17th,  the  Late  Newington ;  18th, 
the  Golden ;  19th,  the  Red  Roman ;  and,  20th,  the 
Brugnon  d" 'Italic.  * 

All  these  varieties  are  continued  by  budding,  and, 
as  in  other  cases,  new  ones  are  obtained  by  sowing 
the  stones;  in  doing  which,  we  ought  not  to  forget 
that,  like  oil-giving  seeds  in  general,  those  of  the 
peach  require  to  be  earthed  as  soon  as  they  are 
separated  from  the  pulp.  In  their  second  year  (if 
wall  trees  be  required),  such  of  them  as  are  des- 
tined for  stems  are  budded  close  to  the  earth  ;  and  if 
riders  or  standards  be  wanted,  three,  four,  or  six  feet 
higher.  In  the  spring  following,  the  first  shoots 
from  these  buds  should  be  headed  down  to  four, 
five,  or  six  eyes,  for  the  purpose  of  producing  two 
upright  and  leading  branches,  and  as  many  laterals, 
with  which  you  begin  to  give  to  the  head  the  form 
you  intend  it  shall  ultimately  take.  We  need  scarce- 
ly remark  that,  on  this  point,  the  doctors  in  horti- 
culture are  nearly  as  far  apart  from  each  other  as 
are  those  of  medicine  in  relation  to  the  origin  and 
contagiousness  of  yellow  fever.  But  believing,  as 
we  do,  that  our  object  will  be  best  fulfilled  by  turn- 
ing aside  from  these  discussions,  we  shall  content 
ourselves  with  a  brief  notice  of  two  forms,  which 
in  our  opinion  are  at  once  the  simplest  and  most 
scientific.  The  first  of  these  (the  standard),  as  we 
have  already  observed,  is  nearly  the  natural  form  of 
the  tree:  requiring  no  interposition  of  art,  if  we  ex- 
cept the  removal  of  dead,  or  dying,  or  superfluous 

*  We  have  excluded  from  this  list  the  White  and  the  Red 
Nutmeg,  and  the  Early  Ann,  because  recommended  only  by 
their  precocity. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  255 

limbs,  and  an  occasional  supply  of  wood  (if  this  be 
wanted)  to  keep  up  a  well-balanced  head.  It  is  also 
that  form  in  which  the  tree  succeeds  best  in  hot  cli- 
mates ;  and  in  such  it  ought  always  to  be  employed. 
But  in  northern  latitudes  (where  the  heat  is  neither 
long-continued  nor  great),  the  fruit  of  the  standard 
peach-tree  is  rarely  seen  in  perfection  :  it  may  be 
large,  and  juicy,  and  well  coloured,  but  it  will  always 
be  deficient  in  that  peculiar  flavour,  that  aroma  which 
is  its  true  characteristic,  and  without  which  it  is  but 
an  ordinary  fruit.*  To  supply,  therefore,  as  far  as 
may  be  possible,  without  the  aid  of  fire  or  glass,  that 
high  temperature  in  which  the  peach  delights,  we 
must  resort,  first,  to  the  use  of  walls,  which,  be- 
sides protecting  the  tree  from  high  and  cold  winds, 
concentrate  the  rays  of  the  sun  on  its  stem  and 
branches,  and  on  the  earth  which  surrounds  and 
nourishes  its  roots ;  secondly,  to  the  amelioration 
of  the  soil,  by  giving  to  it  bom  warmth  and  dryness, 
should  it  be  deficient  in  these  qualities ;  and,  thirdly, 
to  that  mode  of  training  "  which  exposes  to  the 
light  the  greatest  surface  of  leaf  in  the  shortest 
space  of  time,t  and,  consequently,  best  promotes  an 
equal  distribution  of  the  sap."  For  accomplishing 
these  three  objects,  the  rules  are  to  construct  your 
walls  of  stone,  or  brick,  or  wood,  and  of  a  height 
from  12  to  15  feet ;  to  lay  out,  on  the  eastern  and 
southern  sides  of  them,  a  border  10  feet  wide,  work- 
ed to  the  depth  of  three  feet,  and  manured  with  a 
mixture  of  ashes  and  peat,  or  bog  earth  ;J  to  plant 
in  this  (2  1-2  feet  distant  from  the  wall)  your  young 
trees,  furnished  with  two  leading  branches,  and  pre- 
senting a  figure  not  unlike  the  letter  Y ;  to  bring 
down  these  branches  to  a  position  nearly  horizon- 

*  To  show  the  effect  of  climate  on  this  fruit,  Bosc.  says  that 
he  has  eaten  peaches  at  Verona,  compared  with  _which  "the 
celebrated  Clingstone  of  Montreuil  (the  Pomponne)  would  be 
regarded  as  an  abortion." 

t  Knight.  I  London. 


256  GARDENING. 

tal,  and  subsequently  to  train  them  upward,  paral- 
lel to  each  other,  as  high  as  the  top  of  the  wall,  and 
directly  against  its  side,  to  which,  throughout  their 
whole  length,  they  are  to  be  securely  fastened  by 
woollen  straps ;  and,  lastly,  to  encourage  side-shoots 
from  these  leaders,  so  as  to  fill  up  with  bearing  wood 
the  intermediate  space  between  them,  and  such  ex- 
terior space  on  the  wall  as  may  be  thought  proper 
and  practicable.  To  this  form  is  given  the  techni- 
cal name  of  the  Wavy  or  Curvilinear  Fan;  and  it  is 
obvious  that,  in  preserving  as  well  as  in  producing 
it,  the  use  of  the  knife  cannot  be  dispensed  with. 
Be  careful,  therefore,  in  May  and  June,  and  occa- 
sionally in  the  succeeding  months,  to  remove  water 
shoots,  and  all  ill-placed,  redundant,  or  diseased 
buds;  and  again,  at  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  to  cut  away 
with  a  sharp  knife,  and  close  to  the  branches  on 
which  they  grow,  such  new  shoots  as  will  not  read- 
ily accommodate  themselves  to  your  design,  or  as 
may  be  unnecessary  to  it,  and  also  all  such  old  wood 
as  may  be  useless  or  troublesome.* 

The  general  rules  for  thinning  leaves  and  fruit 
(prescribed  under  a  preceding  article)  must  be  care- 
fully observed  in  the  treatment  of  peach-trees  and 
nectarines,  as  they  are  known  to  have  an  uncom- 
mon degree  of  proneness  to  overbearing,  and  as  the 
discipline  we  recommend  will,  besides  giving  an 
improved  fruit,  tend  directly  and  greatly  to  fortify 

*  Knight's  method  of  pruning,  in  "  high,  cold,  and  wet  situa- 
tions," and  by  which  he  secures  good  crops  whf-n  even  the  sea- 
son is  unpropitious,  may  be  found  useful  in  our  climate.  "  In- 
stead," he  says,  "of  taking  off  a  large  portion  of  the  young 
shoots  in  the  spring,  and  training  a  few  only  to  a  considerable 
length,  as  is  the  general  practice,  I  retain  a  large  number  of  the 
shoots,  and  pinch  off  the  minute  and  succulent  points  to  the 
length  of  one  or  two  inches.  By  these  means  I  obtain  spurs 
which  lie  cloje  to  the  wall,  and  give  as  strong  and  vigorous  blos- 
soms, in  even  cold  and  wet  situations  and  weather,  as  are  pro- 
duced by  the  old  method  under  circumstances  the  most  favour- 
able."— Encyclopedia  of  Gardening,  p.  456. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  25" 

the  trees  against  the  attacks  of  their  numerous  en 
emies.  Of  these  the  Acarus,  Cherines,  Aphis,  ant. 
Thrips  (an  insect  hardly  perceptible  to  the  naked 
eye),  are  the  most  common,  and  are  best  expelled 
by  water  and  tobacco  smoke.  It  is,  however,  the 
curculio,  or  grub  (as  we  call  it),  that  may,  from  its 
pre-eminence  in  mischief,  be  regarded  as  the  de 
stroyer  of  the  peach.  Its  attacks  ordinarily  begin 
in  the  stem  near  the  surface  of  the  earth ;  and,  if  not 
arrested,  will  soon  terminate  in  the  roots,  where  it 
riots  on  the  gum  exuding  from  the  many  wounds  i 
inflicts.  The  remedies  resorted  to  in  this  case  are, 
first,  the  application  of  boiling  water  to  the  roots ; 
secondly,  a  similar  application  of  unslacked  lime, 
in  the  proportion  of  one  quart  to  a  tree  ;  thirdly,  re- 
moving the  surface  earth,  and  substituting  for  it  tan- 
ner's bark;  fourthly,  removing  the  earth,  as  in  the 
preceding  case,  in  the  month  of  November,  and  ex- 
posing the  roots  to  the  action  of  the  frost  during 
the  winter ;  and,  lastly,  encircling  the  lower  part  of 
the  stem  with  straw,  and  thus  compelling  the  insect 
to  begin  his  attack  so  far  from  the  ground,  that  he 
will  be  unable  to  avail  himself  of  its  shelter  before 
the  coming  on  of  winter. 

The  diseases  of  the  peach-tree  are  as  numerous, 
and  often  as  fatal,  as  the  depredators  just  mention- 
ed ;  and  are  known1  to  horticulturists  under  the 
names  of  the  honey-dew,  mildew,  canker,  spots,  &c. 
The  first  of  these  yields  to  the  flower  of  sulphur 
sprinkled  over  the  tree  ;  but  the  most  efficient  cure 
for  all  of  them  is  the  removal  of  the  soil  about  their 
roots.* 

The  PLUM-TREE  (Prunus  domestica)  is  a  native  of 
different  parts  of  Europe,  has  been  long  cultivated, 
and  has,  of  course,  many  varieties.  Of  these,  the 

*  Kinment's  experiments,  made  in  1811,  12,  and-13,  show  that 
the  last  of  these  diseases  is  the  effect  of  too  much  vegetable 
food,  and  that,  by  reducing  the  quantity  of  this,  the  diseased 
trees  will  recover. 


258  GARDENING. 

best  recommended  are  the  Prccoce  of  Tours,  the 
Early  Damson  of  Provence,  the  Green  Mirabelle  of 
Italy,  the  St.  Catharine,  the  White  Perdrigon,  the 
Imperatrice,  and  all  the  Gages,  blue,  violet,  and 
green. 

The  St.  Catharine,  the  white  Perdigon,  and  the 
gages,  are  propagated  by  seeds,  the  products  of 
which  never  fail  to  give  plants  differing  in  nothing 
from  the  parent  stem  ;*  while  the  other  varieties 
can  only  be  kept  up  by  budding  or  grafting.f  Where 
trees  are  of  more  than  four  years'  growth,  the  latter 
of  these  operations  is  preferred ;  and  on  all  under 
that  age,  the  former  is  thought  best. 

Argillaceous  soils,  neither  habitually  wet  nor  oc- 
casionally inundated,  and  of  medium  quality,  are 
those  which  best  agree  with  the  plum-tree.  Where, 
from  previous  culture  or  accidental  causes,  the  earth 
has  become  either  very  rich  or  very  poor,  the  tree 
does  not  succeed.  In  the  one  case,  its  vigour  is  di- 
rected only  to  the  production  of  wood  and  foliage  ; 
and  in  the  other,  its  growth  is  feeble  and  its  life 
short.  In  favourable  climates  it  should  always  be 
cultivated  as  a  standard,  and  will  then  require  only 
a  little  annual  labour  about  the  roots,  and  the  re- 
moval from  the  head  of  dead  or  dying  branches ;  but 

*  Tnis  is,  at  least,  a  doubtful  conclusion.  Plants,  like  ani- 
mals of  the  same  genus,  will  mix  and  produce  new  varieties,  as 
is  amply  proved  by  artificial  fecundation ;  and  the  gages,  we  be- 
lieve, form  no  exception  to  the  general  law.  We  have,  in  sev 
eral  instances,  seen  and  tasted  fruits,  grown  from  the  pits  of  the 
gage ;  but  we  have  never  seen  in  any  of  these  fruits  an  exact 
resemblance  to  the  female  parent.  They  have  been  of  various 
colours,  shapes,  size,  and  flavour,  although  grown  from  pits 
coming  from  the  same  tree,  according,  as  we  supposed,  to  the 
character  of  the  male  parent. — J.  B. 

t  The  Muscle,  the  St.  Julian,  and  the  Cerisette,  are  varieties 
raised  from  seeds  or  suckers,  as  stems  en  which  to  bud  and  graft 
other  plums,  &c.  With  this  exception,  all  other  suckers  should 
be  removed  as  soon  as  they  appear.  If  you  postpone  this  busi 
ness  till  winter,  the  wounds  you  then  inflict  will  ensure  you  a 
double  crop  in  the  spring. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  259 

in  northern  latitudes  and  cold  situations,  the  espa- 
lier form  (as  practised  near  Paris)  may  be  not  only 
useful,  but  indispensable.  This  differs  in  nothing 
from  the  ordinary  mode  but  in  pruning  less  severely. 
The  cultivators  at  Montreuil,  instead  of  shortening 
the  branches  to  three  or  four  eyes,  leave  them  fif- 
teen or  twenty  feet  long,  and  lay  them  down  in  such 
way  as  shall  soonest  and  most  completely  enable 
them  to  cover  the  frame  to  which  they  are  at- 
tached. 

With  regard  to  product,  "few  and  fine"  is  the 
general  maxim.  The  thinning  discipline  must  not, 
therefore,  be  omitted;  because  it  is  that  which  will 
best  fulfil  both  parts  of  the  rule.  (See  on  this  head, 
article  Apple-tree.) 

The  gum  and  canker  are  the  diseases  most  com- 
mon to  the  plum-tree,  for  which  heading  down  is 
the  best  remedy.*  When  wasps  attack  the  fruit 
they  are  most  effectually  kept  off  by  nettings. 

The  CRANBERRY  (Vaccinium  macrocarpum) . — This 
plant  is  a  native  of  our  own  country,  and  merits 
more  attention  than  has  been  given  to  it,  as  the  ex- 
periments of  the  late  Sir  Joseph  Banks  prove  at 
once  the  facility  and  the  profit  of  making  it  an  ob- 
ject of  garden  culture.f 

Growing  naturally  in  swamps  and  bogs,  it  has 
been  too  hastily  concluded  that  it  would  not  succeed 
but  in  grounds  "  often  inundated  and  always  wet." 
But  that  this  belief  is  erroneous  can  no  longer  be 
doubted,  as  we  learn  from  London,  an  eminent 
practical  writer,  that  "  the  cranberry  can  always 
be  made  to  thrive  on  the  margin  of  a  pond ;"  while 
the  experiments  of  Salisbury  (an  amateur  of  the  art) 
demonstrate  that  "  it  will  even  bear  abundantly  in 
pots  filled  with  bog  earth,  and  placed  under  the 

*  Abercrombie. 

f  On  a  bed  eighteen  feet  square,  he  raised  three  and  a  half 
bushels,  Winchester  measure. — See  Hort.  Trans.,  vol.  i.,p.  71. 


260  GARDENING. 

shade  of  a  hedge  or  fence."*  In  the  first  of  these 
cases,  enclose  a  portion  of  the  pond  by  stakes,  fill 
the  bottom  with  stones,  and  on  these  place  a  stra- 
tum of  bog  earth,  raised  to  the  ordinary  level  of  the 
pond,  and  upon  this  plant  a  few  cranberries.  The 
runners  will  soon  and  completely  cover  the  bed,  and. 
your  harvests  will  be  both  abundant  and  regular, 
never  suffering  either  from  weather  or  insects.  In 
the  other  case,  select  or  make  a  hollow,  and  within 
it  form  a  bed  of  bog  earth,  set  your  plants  upon 
this,  and  shade  them  on  the  south  and  east  with 
some  quick  growers,  as  Indian  corn,  or  the  butter 
bean,  &c. 

The  CURRANT  (Ribes  rubrum). — It  is  only  of  this 
sort  and  its  varieties  that  we  shall  speak,  as  the 
fruits  of  the  other  species  are  rarely,  if  ever,  admit- 
ted to  the  table.  This  plant  is  evidently  of  north- 
ern origin  and  habits,  very  indifferent  to  soil  or  sit- 
uation, and  regardless  of  weather :  growing  wher- 
ever planted,  and  never  failing,  when  tolerably  cul- 
tivated, to  give  a  plentiful  crop.  The  varieties  of  it 
are  principally  distinguished  by  colour,  as  the  White, 
the  New  White,  and  the  While.  Crystal,  the  Large  Red, 
the  Cluster  Red,  the  Champagne  Pale  Red,  and  the 
Dutch  Pale  Red.  These  are  all  propagated  alike  by 
seeds,  roots,  and  cuttings,  but  generally  by  the  last 
mode,  which  does  not  at  all  differ  from  that  pre- 
scribed (in  the  next  article)  for  the  gooseberry. 
The  only  farther  object  of  art  in  the  management 
of  this  plant,  is  to  keep  the  head  (which  is  much 
disposed  to  become  bushy)  pervious  to  the  sun  and 
air,  the  stem  clean,  and  the  roots  unencumbered 
with  suckers. 

The  GOOSEHKRRY  (Ribes  grossularia). — Though  re- 
ally a  native  of  Piedmont,  this  plant  maybe  regard- 
ed as  a  British  production,  as  it  is  only  in  England 
and  Scotland  where  its  cultivation  is  well  under- 

*  See  Hort.  Trans.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  96. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  261 

stood  and  attended  to,  and  where  the  fruit  is  held  in 
high  estimation,  or  deserves  to  bo  so.*f 

Its  varieties  are  very  numerous.  In  the  London 
nurseries  are  no  less  than  one  hundred  different 
sorts,  and  in  those  of  Lancashire  (where  the  cul- 
ture is  most  general)  three  hundred ;  some  of  which 
are  early,  others  late ;  some  large,  and  others  small ; 
some  abounding  in  flavour,  and  others  entirely  des- 
titute of  it.  In  our  brief  catalogue  we  shall  be  gov- 
erned altogether  by  the  uses  to  which  the  fruit  is 
destined,  and  shall  therefore  indicate  only  three 
sorts,  the  Wamngton  or  Manchester  Red,  employed 
for  the  dessert ;  the  Early  Wilmot  Red,  famous  for 
tarts  and  sauces ;  and  the  Walnut  Red.  recommend- 
ed by  its  quality  of  keeping  or  preserving  better 
than  any  other  variety  of  the  family. { 

Like  other  fruit-trees,  the  gooseberry  may  be 
propagated  by  seeds,  suckers,  cuttings,  &c.,  but  the 
last  is  the  mode  generally  adopted.  In  this  case 
the  cuttings  are  taken  from  bearing  shoots,  placed  in 
the  nursery  eight  or  ten  inches  apart,  and  trained 
to  the  height  of  a  foot  with  a  clear  stem,  excepting 
three  or  four  buds  at  the  top,  which  must  be  left  to 
form  the  future  head,  and  which,  when  they  have 
pushed  a  few  inches,  must  be  radiated  at  an  angle 
between  forty  and  forty-five  degrees.  When  the 
roots  are  sufficiently  formed,  the  plants  may  be 
taken  up  and  placed  in  rows  in  the  border  or  square 
intended  for  them,  at  the  distance  of  six  feet  be- 
tween the  rows,  and  four  feet  from  plant  to  plant. 
An  annual  labour  about  the  roots  is  necessary,  and, 


*  This  fruit  is  also  of  very  large  size  and  fine  flavour  in  some 
parts  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway. 

f  In  Italy,  France,  and  Spain,  the  plant  is  scarcely  known, 
and  very  little  esteemed ;  nor  does  it  attract  much  attention  in 
Holland  and  Germany. 

^  If  a  larger  collection  be  thought  desirable,  it  may  be  had 
on  good  terms  and  in  excellent  order  from  J.  Whalley  of  Liver- 
pool. 


262  GARDENING. 

unless  the  soil  be  uncommonly  rich,  a  yearly  dress- 
ing also  of  stable  manure  or  peat  earth.  Too 
much  shade  is  oppressive  to  the  plant  and  injurious 
to  the  fruit,  but  a  degree  of  it  is  useful  to  both,  and 
is  best  obtained  by  sowing  rows  of  the  Jerusalem 
artichoke  between  those  of  the  gooseberry.  When 
the  heads  become  crowded,  all  cross  and  water 
shoots  growing  in  their  centres  must  be  pinched  or 
cut  off;  and  if  the  smaller  berries  also  be  removed 
early  in  the  season,  the  result  to  the  crop  will  be 
favourable  ;  but,  in  performing  the  first  of  these  op- 
erations, we  must  remember  that  the  summer 
shoots  in  general  must  not  be  touched. 

Caterpillars  of  different  names,  the  white,  black, 
and  green  (larva  of  the  Tenthrendinida),  are  the 
worst  enemies  of  the  gooseberry.  Most  of  these, 
when  full  grown,  descend  into  the  earth,  and  remain 
there  for  the  winter.  This  habit  suggests  the  most 
probable  mode  of  destroying  them.  Some  horti- 
culturists accordingly  lay  hot  lime  around  the  roots 
of  the  plants  ;  others  saturate  the  surrounding  earth 
with  boiling  water;  others  with  the  urine  of  cows; 
others  dig  into  the  earth  seaweed  or  grass,  sprinkled 
with  a  solution  of  salt  and  water ;  and  J.  Tweedie 
"  pares  off  three  inches  of  the  surface  earth,  which 
generally  includes  the  eggs  of  the  caterpillar,  makes 
a  deep  trench,  and  places  this  at  the  bottom,  where 
the  temperature  is  such  as  to  prevent  the  eggs  from 
hatching."  Various  washes  have  also  been  devised 
for  destroying  the  larva  while  above  ground  and  on 
the  plants ;  but,  in  the  opinion  of  Loudon,  with  lit- 
tle if  any  success.  "  Hand-picking,"  he  says, "  how- 
ever tedious  it  may  seem,  will  in  the  end  be  found 
more  certain  and  cheap  than  any  other  mode." 

The  GRAPE-VINE  (Vitis  vinifera). — This  species  of 
the  vine  (the  only  one  of  which  we  mean  to  speak) 
is  believed  to  be  a  native  of  Persia,*  whence  it  has 

*  See  Michaux,  Olivier,  and  Sickler.    The  last  of  these  \vri- 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  263 

been  spread  over  many  different  regions.  Indeed, 
climate  alone  appears  to  have  prescribed  boundaries 
to  its  diffusion ;  as  in  Europe  we  find  it  successfully 
cultivated  between  the  25th  and  52d  degrees  of  north 
latitude,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  with  much  advantage 
beyond  these  limits.  Under  favourable  circumstan- 
ces, it  attains  to  a  great  si/.i1-  ;md  age.* 

Having  been  cultivated  at  least  from  the  time  of 
Noah,  its  varieties  are  so  multiplied  as  to  set  even 
enumeration  at  defiance  :f  a  fact,  after  all,  of  little 
importance  to  our  present  object,  as  it  is  only  a 
very  small  class  of  these  varieties,  and  a  still  smaller 
proportion  of  this  class,  that  comes  within  the  scope 
of  the  present  work.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the 
sorts  which,  in  our  opinion,  are  best  adapted  to  the 
climate,  and  fittest  for  the  only  use  we  mean  to  make 
of  them,  that  of  the  dessert :  the  Che^selas  of  Fon- 
tainebleau,  the  White  do.,  the  Violet  do.,  the  Black  Mus- 
cat of  Jura,  the  Slack  do.  of  the  Po,  the  While  do.  of 
do.,  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria,  the  Malvoisie  of  the 
Po,  the  Red  Hamburg,  and  the  Sweetwater. 

ters  has  given  a  very  curious  and  learned  account  of  the  progress 
of  the  Grape-vine  from  Persia  to  Sicily,  by  the  way  of  Egypt 
and  Greece,  in  his  work  entitled  Geschichte  der  Obs.  Cult.,  vol.  i. 

*  Pliny  speaks  of  a  vine  600  years  old.  Hose  says  there  are 
several  in  Burgundy  400  years  old  ;  and  Millar,  that  "a  vineyard 
is  young  at  100  years."  A  vine  at  North  Allertori  (in  England) 
covered  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  square  yards  ;  another  at 
Hampton  Court,  one  hundred  and  sixteen;  and  a  third  at  Val- 
entines (in  Essex)  one  hundred  and  forty-seven.  "  The  Hamp- 
ton vine  ordinarily  produces  2200  bunches,  averaging  a  pound 
each;  and  one  of  its  branches  measures  one  hundred  and  foui- 
teen  feet  in  length." — Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening,  p.  843. 

t  The  most  successful  attempt  yet  made  at  an  enumeration 
of  the  varieties  of  the  vine  may  be  found  in  a  Spanish  work  by 
Don  S.  Roxas  Clemente,  Librarian  of  the  Botanic  Garden  at 
Madrid.  Among  the  many  good  things  done,  or  attempted  by 
Bonaparte  in  France,  was  the  bringing  together  in  a  single  gar- 
den (that  of  the  Luxembourg)  all  the  varieties  of  the  vine  to  be 
found  in  that  country.  The  work  began  hi  1801,  under  the  par- 
ticular directions  of  Chaptal  and  Bosc  ;  and  in  1809  three  hun- 
dred sorts  had  been  collected,  cultivated,  and  classed.  We  have 
heard  with  regret  that  the  work  was  not  completed. 


264  GARDENING. 

Like  many  other  plants,  the  vino  is  propagated  : 

1st,  By  Seeds,  when  mnv  varivi.es  are  wanted, 
and  most  generally  by  t\\ »  processes,  one  of  which 
consists  "  in  approaching  iwo  or  more  sorts  so  near- 
ly together  as  to  produce  a  promiscuous  impregna- 
tion ;"*  the  other  "  in  cutting  out  the  stamen  from 
the  flower  of  the  variety  to  be  impregnated,  intro- 
ducing the  pollen  of  that  with  which  the  cross  is  to 
be  made,  and,  finally,  by  dusting  the  stigma  with  the 
ripe  anthers."  The  former  is  the  method  of  Speech- 
ley,  and  the  latter  that  of  Knight. 

2d,  By  Layers. — This  method  is  little  practised, 
because,  though  plants  so  raised  give  their  fruit  most 
promptly,  they  are  both  feeble  and  short-lived. 

3d,  By  Scions. — These  are  never  resorted  to  but 
to  correct  errors.  When  the  varieties  originally 
planted  are  bad  or  unfruitful,  grafting  is  the  remedy ; 
and  though  the  operation  be  not  uniformly  success- 
ful, still  it  succeeds  often  enough  to  recommend  the 
experiment.  And, 

4th,  By  Cuttings. — This  is  the  mode  generally 
employed,  and  that  which  best  deserves  to  be  so. 
The  cuttings  are  of  three  kinds :  the  long  (12  to  18 
inches),  the  short  (about  half  the  length  of  the  pre- 
ceding), and  the  single  eye.]  The  first  and  second 
have  each  a  portion  of  the  wood  of  two  years ;  and 
the  third  has  but  wood  enough  of  the  last  year  to  fur- 
nish the  germe  of  a  single  bud.  The  first  of  these 
methods  is  that  of  the  Continent  of  Europe,  and  has 
much  and  long  experience  to  support  it ;  the  last  is 
an  English  novelty,  with  little  to  recommend  it,  and 
probably  growing  out  of  the  easier  management  of 
short  sets  when  raised  in  pots  and  hotbeds,  according 
to  their  system.'  One  quality  is,  however,  indispen- 
sable to  cuttings  of  all  kinds,  whether  long  or  short ; 
and  that  is,  that  "  the  wood  composing  them  be  solid 

*  See  Treatise  on  tHe  Vine. 

t  Mitchell  suggested,  and  Speechley  recommends  this  spe- 
cies of  cutting. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  265 

and  compact,  round  and  short-jointed,  and  that  the 
eyes  or  buds  be  large  and  prominent.*  Cut  in  the 
autumn,  they  must  be  carefully  buried  until  the  en- 
suing spring,  when  they  may  be  taken  up  and  plant- 
ed where  it  is  intended  they  shall  permanently  re- 
main. 

Many  appearances  indicate  that  the  vine  is  indif- 
ferent to  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  which  it  grows, 
as  it  is  found  to  live  and  thrive  in  limestone  clay, 
in  chalk,  in  gravel,  in  granite,  in  schist,  in  earths 
charged  with  the  oxyde  of  iron,  in  the  rubbish  of  old 
foundations,  and  even  in  the  midst  of  brick  pave- 
ments and  castle  walls. f  Nor,  judging  from  a  first 
and  cursory  view,  should  we  suppose  it  to  be  more 
nice  with  regard  to  exposition,  as  it  may  be  found 
growing  under  many  different  aspects,  and  on  every 
possible  variety  of  surface.  Still  these  appearan- 
ces are  deceptive,  and  yield  to  the  evidence  of  many 
facts,  carefully  collected  by  horticulturists,  which 
prove  that,  notwithstanding  this  general  power  of 
adaptation,  the  vine  is  particularly  sensible  to  the 
influences  of  soil  and  exposure,  and  that,  under  even 
slight  changes  or  modifications  of  these,  it  becomes 
more  or  less  fertile,  and  gives  its  products  earlier 
or  later,  or  with  juices  more  or  less  abundant,  sac- 
charine, and  well-flavoured.  In  strong,  rich  soils, 
its  growth  in  wood  and  foliage  is  vigorous ;  but  the 
fruit  ripens  slowly,  and  is  comparatively  tasteless. J 

*  The  soils  which  in  France  are  most  generally  assigned  to 
vineyards  are,  1st,  limestone  clay  ;  2d,  gravelly  clay,  as  at  Nis- 
mes,  Montpelier,  and  Bourdeaux  ;  3d,  granitic  soil,  which  gives 
the  wines  called  Cotes  Rotds,  Hermitage,  and  Taville,  &c. ;  and, 
4th,  chalk,  as  in  Champagne. 

t  See  Treatise  on  Fruit-trees  by  Hitt,  and  Laurence  on  the 
Fruit  Garden.  Rozier  paved  his  vineyard  at  Bezieres.  The 
vine  mentioned  by  Hitt  grew  in  the  foundations  of  Belvoir  Cas- 
tle, and  that  spoken  of  by  Laurence  grew  out  of  the  wall  of  an 
old  castle  twenty  feet  from  the  ground. 

J  The  Clovego  estate,  famous  for  the  finest  description  of 
Burgundy  wine,  changed  masters  during  the  revolution,  and 
was.  out  of  mistaken  kindness,  or  from  a  desire  of  doubling  the 


266  GARDENING. 

In  soils,  whether  rich  or  poor,  resting  on  a  hard, 
impervious  subsoil  of  rock  or  of  hardpan,  or  on 
one  often  or  habitually  wet,  the  plant  is  feeble,  diffi- 
cult to  rear,  short-lived,  and  never  productive  ;  and 
on  the  north  sides  of  hills,  and  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  large  masses  of  wood  and  water,  it  does 
not  thrive.  It  is  only  under  southern  and  eastern 
aspects,  and  in  soils  light  and  warm,  and  of  a  me- 
dium quality  as  to  strength,  that  the  vine  attains 
that  degree  of  perfection  of  which  it  is  susceptible.* 

It  is  this  last-mentioned  circumstance  that  directs 
us  in  the  choice  and  application  of  manures,  and 
which  forbids  those  of  a  heating  quality,  or  of  any 
quality  in  large  quantities.  The  fresh  mould  of  old 
pasture  land,  the  scrapings  of  streets,  and  composts 
composed  of  stable  litter;  the  leaves  of  trees,  weeds 
in  a  green  state,  and  animal  remains  of  all  kinds  (as 
hair,  skins,  feathers,  bones,  &c.,  thoroughly  rotted), 
and  applied  in  moderate  doses  every  second  year, 
/orm  the  most  approved  practice  on  this  head. 

The  vine,  from  the  length  and  pliancy  of  its 
sranches,  is  subjected  to  very  different  forms,  some 
of  which  are  no  doubt  dictated  by  mere  fancy,  and 
others  by  a  long  experience  of  their  usefulness. 
Of  the  last  we  shall  mention, 

1st.  The  dwarf  standard,  which  is  that  exclusively 
employed  in  large  vineyards  in  the  northern  parts 

quantity  of  the  crop,  abundantly  manured.  The  consequence, 
as  might  be  expected,  was  a  larger  produce,  but  a  diminished 
price. 

*  This  delicacy  of  constitution  alone  enables  us  to  explain 
the  cause  of  the  great  differences  found  in  vines  of  the  same 
sort,  cultivated  in  the  same  way,  and  growing  even  within  sight 
of  each  other.  The  Lafite  wine  is  only  found  on  a  farm  not 
exceeding  in  size  300  acres.  The  Ostrian,  &c.,  is  thexproduce 
of  a  tract  not  much  larger.  The  Verdelho  grape  gives  genuine 
Madeira  only  in  the  island  of  that  name,  &c.,  &c.  An  external 
mark  of  a  soil  fitted  for  the  vine  is  said  by  Switzer  to  be  the 
production  of  brambles.  "  Where,"  he  says,  "  these  grow,  the 
vine  never  fails." 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  261 

of  France  and  Germany,  and  which  consists  in  re- 
ducing the  plant  to  a  bush  of  two  or  three  shoots, 
and  keeping  these  erect  by  a  stake.  The  shoots 
will  each  give  two  or  three  bunches  within  fifteen 
or  eighteen  inches  from  the  earth,  and  are  naturally 
succeeded  by  others,  which  in  their  turn  become 
bearers. 

2d.  The  prostrate  or  creeping  form,  by  which  the 
vine  is  trained  over  the  ground  like  a  melon  or  cu- 
cumber. This  was  early  noticed  by  Bacon,  and  has 
been  since  recommended  by  Vispre,  "  as  least  ex- 
pensive and  troublesome,  and  best  calculated  for  ri- 
pening the  fruit,  by  placing  it  within  the  sphere  of  that 
heat  which  is  emitted  by  the  earth  during  the  night." 

3d.  The  espalier  form,  by  which  the  leading  and 
lateral  branches  are  trained  against  an  open  frame 
or  trellis,  and  in  such  way  "  as  to  expose  the  lar- 
gest surface  to  the  action  of  the  sun  in  the  shortest 
space  of  time."  And, 

4th.  The  wall  espalier,  which  differs  in  nothing 
from  the  preceding  but  in  having  behind  it  a  solid 
structure,  and  the  additional  heat  reflected  by  it. 
This  form  is  often  met  with  in  Europe,  where  the 
southern,  eastern,  and  western  sides  of  farmhouses 
and  cottages  are  made  to  supply  the  walls,  and  do 
it  very  completely.  In  gardens,  the  structures  in- 
tended to  produce  the  same  effect  are  of  two  kinds  : 
the  one  rising  to  the  height  of  fifteen  and  even 
twenty  feet,  made  of  stone  or  wood,  and  meant  to 
protect  the  taller  kinds  of  fruit-trees  ;  and  the  other, 
of  similar  materials,  but  not  exceeding  six  feet  in 
height,  and  calculated  for  bushes  and  dwarfs. 
Speechley  says  the  vine  does  well  on  the  latter; 
and  we  are  instructed  by  Williams,  of  Pitmaison> 
how  best  to  derive  advantage  from  the  former. 
"  To  fill  up,"  he  says,  "  the  intervals  between  the 
trees,  plant  vines,  train  them  horizontally  under  the 
coping  of  the  wall,  and,  by  inverting  and  inarching 
their  branches,  find  means  to  occupy  every  vacant 
21 


268  GARDENING. 

space."  "  I  have,"  he  adds,  "  within  a  few  years 
past,  gradually  trained  bearing  branches  of  a  small 
black  cluster  grape  to  the  distance  of  near  fifty  feet 
from  the  root,  and  I  find  the  bunches  every  year 
grow  larger  and  ripen  earlier,  as  the  shoots  con- 
tinue to  advance ;  for,  according  to  Knight's  theory 
of  the  circulation  of  the  sap,  the  juices  become 
richer  the  farther  they  pass  through  the  alburnum  : 
whence  it  follows  that  trees  and  vines  give  blos- 
som-buds in  greater  quantity  and  perfection  in  pro- 
portion as  the  branches  are  long,  and  that  even  the 
extremities  of  these  are  best  furnished  with  flow- 
ers and  fruit." 

As  pruning  is  essential  to  all  these  forms,  though 
not  in  the  same  degree,  it  may  be  proper  to  make  a 
few  remarks  on  this  subject.  And,  first,  the  knife, 
in  its  application  to  the  grape-vine,  is  not  used  till 
the  second  year,  when  the  plant  has  pushed  three 
or  four  shoots.  Two  of  these  (generally  the  low- 
est) are  selected  for  bearers,  and  shortened  down 
to  the  fourth,  fifth,  or  sixth  eye  from  the  root,  while 
all  others  are  entirely  removed.  This  is  done  in 
the  autumn  after  vegetation  is  over,  and  forms  the 
whole  of  the  first  year's  pruning.  In  the  subse- 
quent spring,  and  so  soon  as  the  buds  have  pushed, 
follows  what  the  French  call  enbourgeonement,  and 
the  English  disbudding,  and  which  consists  "  in  rub- 
bing off  all  fore-right  and  lateral  shoots,  which,  if 
retained,  might  crowd  or  cross  the  bearing  branch- 
es, or  otherwise  obstruct  the  form  intended  to  be 
given  to  the  vine."  Suckers  are  also  to  be  care- 
fully removed,  and  with  them  axillary  buds  and 
curls,  and  such  of  the  roots  as  may  run  within  eight 
inches  of  the  surface.  The  third  year's  pruning 
will  be  the  result  of  a  careful  examination*  1st,  of 
the  two  leading  branches,  and  the  young  wood  they 
have  respectively  produced  ;  and,  2d,  of  the  surface 
(whether  of  wall  or  of  trellis)  which  it  is  your  in- 
tention to  cover.  If  these  be  in  just  proportion  to 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  269 

each  other,  the  knife  is  unnecessary  but  to  remove 
dead  or  diseased  branches ;  but  if  the  growth  of  the 
shoots  be  feeble,  or  if  some  be  feeble  and  others 
vigorous,  in  both  cases  the  knife  is  the  remedy; 
shortening  all,  in  the  first  case,  to  five  or  six  eyes 
each ;  and  in  the  other,  the  feeblest  only.  Future 
prunings  will  but  be  repetitions  of  this ;  and,  as  a 
general  rule,  every  pruning  must  be  followed  by  a 
thorough  digging  of  the  earth  about  the  roots  of  the 
plant. 

The  insects  most  injurious  to  the  grape-vine  are 
the  red  spider,  which  is  best  expelled  by  frequent 
waterings  ;  and  the  thrips,  and  one  or  two  sorts  of 
the  cocci,*  which  may  be  destroyed  by  smoke. 
The  best  protection  against  the  blue  fly  is  furnished 
by  bottles  filled  with  any  kind  of  sweet  liquor,  and 
hung  up  among  the  vines ;  and  horsehair  bags  will 
completely  defend  the  fruit  against  the  attacks  of 
wasps  and  garden  birds. 

The  FIG-TREE  (Ficus),  (classed  by  horticulturists 
among  the  berries), f  is  a  native  of  Asia ;  and  in  all 
hot  climates  may  be  made  an  important  object  of 
cultivation.  In  Greece  and  in  the  Ionian  Isles  it  at- 
tains to  the  size  of  an  apple-tree,  bears  its  foliage 
throughout  the  year,  and  is  remarkable  for  hardi- 
ness and  longevity.  Even  in  climates  less  propi- 
tious to  it,  it  retains  the  last  of  these  qualities.  One 
brought  to  England  from  Aleppo  in  1643,  by  Dr. 
Pocock,  is  yet  living  and  vigorous  ;  and  another,  in- 
troduced by  Cardinal  Pole  more  than  a  century 
earlier  (1525),  is  said  to  be  in  the  same  condition. | 

The  species  of  it  are  very  numerous ;  but  of  this 
long  list  we  shall  speak  only  of  the  Ficus  Carica,  or 
common  fig,  because  it  is  only  from  the  cultivation 
of  this  that  we  may  have  anything  to  hope.  Nor  of 
its  varieties  do  we  know  more  than  six  that  can 
probably  be  acclimated  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson. 

*  Hesperidum  and  Adonidum. 

t  Luu'.lon.  J  Idem 


270  GARDENING. 

These  are,  the  Long  While,  the  Yellow  or  Angelica, 
and  the  Violet,  cultivated  near  Paris  ;  and  the  Black 
Ischia,  and  Slack  and  White  Genoa,  which  ripen  in 
England. 

All  the  varieties  of  the  fig  are  propagated  by 
seeds,*  suckers,  buds,  scions,f  and  layers ;  nor  is  its 
propagation  by  crossing  unknown  to  the  horticultu- 
rist ;  but  this  can  only  be  effected  by  planting  two 
varieties  near  to  each  other,  as  no  means  have  yet 
been  discovered  for  extracting  the  male  organ  of 
the  fig  without  destroying  the  female.  Of  these 
different  modes,  however,  those  by  cuttings  and  lay- 
ers are  most  frequently  employed  and  best  recom- 
mended. In  the  first  case,  select  in  the  autumn 
eight  or  ten  inches  of  young  wood,  with  one  or  two 
of  old  attached  to  it,  from  the  shortest  jointed  and 
most  fruitful  boughs ;  bury  these  during  the  winter 
in  a  bed  of  sand ;  and  in  the  spring,  plant  them  in 
a  border  of  fresh  and  warm  loam,  against  the  south- 
ern or  eastern  side  of  a  ten-foot  wall.J  Layering 
here  does  not  differ  from  the  process  of  the  same 
name  employed  in  other  cases :  shoots  of  two  or 
three  years  are  laid  down  in  the  spring,  and  a  single 
summer  will  be  sufficient  for  the  formation  of  roots ; 
after  which,  sever  the  young  plant  from  the  old,  and 
set  it  out  as  directed  for  cuttings. 

In  hot  climates,  as  in  the  case  of  the  peach,  the 
standard  is  the  form  most  approved  ;  but  in  climates 
like  ours,  the  stellate  fan  is  that  which  offers  the 
strongest  assurance  of  success. $  It  is  produced  by 
training  to  a  single  stem,  encouraging  lateral  shoots, 
and  bringing  these  down  in  succession,  so  as  to  pre- 
sent a  figure  nearly  circular,  and  so  low  as  to  give 
it  the  benefit  of  a  reflected  as  well  as  a  direct  heat.|| 

*  Loudon.  t  Idem.  J  Idem. 

§  "  Fan  training  from  two  branches  is  bad,  gives  only  wood 
and  leaves." — Idem.  Bosc  says,  "  Keep  the  branches  short, 
low,  and  spreading."  See  also  Hort.  Trans.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  307. 

||  Knight's  method  does  not  materially  differ  from  this.    H« 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  271 

We  have  already  suggested,  in  relation  to  other 
trees,  that  their  mode  of  bearing  ought,  in  a  great 
degree,  to  regulate  our  method  of  pruning  them ; 
nor  is  the  remark  more  applicable  to  the  apple  or 
the  peach  than  to  the  fig  tree.  We  need  hardly  in- 
form the  reader  that  this  last  blossoms  twice  in  the 
year ;  first  under  the  spring,  and  again  under  the 
summer  flow  of  the  sap;  and,  where  the  climate, 
&c.,  is  favourable,  matures  two  crops  in  the  season, 
on  two  distinct  sets  of  young  shoots.  Whence  it  fol- 
lows that  the  management  which  shall  tend  most 
directly  to  multiply  shoots  or  bearers,  is,  in  rela- 
tion to  this  tree,  that,  which  is  best.  Now  many 
experiments  show  that,  if  you  shorten  a  branch  of 
the  fig-tree  with  a  knife,  the  tree  will  exert  itself 
only  to  recover  what  it  has  lost ;  and,  of  course, 
that  you  will  but  have  a  single  shoot  instead  of  the 
one  you  have  removed :  whereas,  if  you  substitute 
breaking  for  cutting,  you  will,  instead  of  one,  have 
several  shoots,  and,  consequently,  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  fruit.  Hence  the  rule,  "  to  cut  when  you 
want  to  lessen  the  bulk  of  the  head,  and  to  break  at 
ten,  twelve,  or  fifteen  inches  from  the  stem,  when 
an  increased  quantity  either  of  wood  or  of  fruit  is 
your  object."  These  remarks  do  not,  however,  su- 
persede the  more  general  rules  for  removing  dead, 
or  diseased,  or  redundant  branches,  or  for  such 
other  use  of  the  knife  as  may  be  necessary  in  giv- 
ing form  to  the  head ;  and  the  less  so,  as  the  plant 
is  among  those  which  bear  cutting  without  injury. 

Any  soil  not  positively  wet,  provided  it  be  annu- 
ally dug  and  triannually  manured  with  stable  litter, 
will  suit  the  fig-tree.  But  a  more  laborious  and  ex- 
pensive operation  is  necessary  to  protect  it  against 
hard  and  frosty  weather  With  this  view,  the  prac- 

encourages  lateral  shoots  from  a  single  stem,  and  trains  them 
horizontally,  or  even  downward,  close  to  the  wall;  by  which 
he  avoids  a  too  great  abundance  of  wood,  matures  that  which 
he  retains,  and  escapes  injury  from  frost. — Hort.  Trans.,  vol. 
iii ,  p.  307. 


272  GARDENING. 

tice  in  France  is  to  bury  in  the  earth  all  such  limbs 
or  parts  of  limbs  as  can  be  brought  sufficiently  low ; 
while  in  England  they  cover  the  tree  with  matting, 
or  straw,  or  branches  of  evergreens.  Either  method 
may  be  usefully  adopted  here,  remembering,  as  a 
general  principle,  to  make  the  covering  as  light  as 
may  be  at  all  consistent  with  the  object. 

We  have  said  above  that  the  natural  habit  of  the 
fig  is  to  give  two  crops  in  the  year ;  the  latter  of 
which,  in  hot  climates,  is  found  to  be  the  best :  but 
the  result  with  us  will  be  different.  The  spring 
shoots  only  will  give  fruit  here,  and  must  be  retain- 
ed ;  while  all  embryos  showing  themselves  after 
midsummer  should  be  carefully  rubbed  off.  The 
effect  of  this  will  be,  not  merely  to  disencumber  the 
tree  of  fruit  that  would  not  ripen,  but  to  turn  the 
surplus  energy  wasted  upon  it  to  the  preparation  of 
new  embryo  figs  for  the  succeeding  year.* 

We  cannot  dismiss  this  article  without  saying 
something  on  the  artificial  method  employed,  even 
in  hot  climates,  of  improving  and  ripening  the  fig, 
and  to  which  has  been  given  the  name  of  caprifica- 
tion.  This  process  consists  in  placing  on  the  trees 
a  few  spring  figs,  in  which  the  Cynips  has  depos- 
ited its  eggs.  From  these  multitudes  of  gnats  will 
issue,  and  in  their  turn  puncture  the  crop  of  fall 
figs,  and  thus  increase  their  flavour,  and  quicken, 
as  is  believed,  their  maturity.  Such  was  former- 
ly the  practice  in  the  Levant;  while  in  France 
they  pricked  the  fruit  with  a  quill  or  straw  dipped 
in  olive  oil  or  brandy,  and  in  Italy  with  the  point 
of  a  knife  medicated  in  the  same  way,  on  the  sup- 
position that  any  small  wound  inflicted  on  the  fruit 
would  have  an  effect  similar  to  that  of  the  sting  of 
a  gnat.  These  practices  are,  however,  no  longer 
as  general  as  they  have  been,  and,  like  others 
founded  on  doubtful  principles,  are  fast  yielding  to 

*  Swayne  on  the  management  of  the  fig  in  the  open  air. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  273 

a  better  philosophy.  "  How,"  says  Bosc,  "  can  the 
larva  of  the  Cynips  improve,  the  fig,  otherwise  than 
the  larva  of  the  Phalaena  improves  the  apple  ?  And 
who  would  be  desirous  of  having  a  crop  of  worm- 
eaten  apples,  merely  for  the  pleasure  of  eating  them 
a  week  or  a  fortnight  earlier  1* 

The  fig-tree  is  liable  to  few  diseases,  nor  is  the 
fruit  much  injured  by  the  attacks  of  insects.  In 
England  the  red  spider,  and  in  France  a  species  of 
Coccus,  to  which  is  given  the  name  of  ihe  Jig-louse, 
are  regarded  as  its  worst  enemies.  The  first  is  got 
rid  of  by  watering  and  smoking  the  tree ;  and  the 
last  by  rubbing  the  stem,  branches,  &c.,  with  a 
coarse  cloth. 

The  MULBERRY  (Morus). — The  species  are  two, 
the  White,  cultivated  for  its  leaves  only  (which  form 
the  food  of  the  silkworm),  and  the  Black,  a  native 
of  our  own  forests,  and  well  meriting  our  attention 
for  its  fruit,  recommended  as  it  is  by  its  highly  aro- 
matic flavour  and  cooling  subacid  juices,  which, 
like  those  of  the  strawberry,  are  not  susceptible  of 
the  acetous  fermentation,  and,  of  course,  particu- 
larly proper  and  useful  for  rheumatic  and  gouty  pa- 
tients, f 

This  tree  is  propagated  by  seeds,  suckers,  layers, 
cuttings,  and  scions.  Those  from  seeds  are  suppo- 
sed to  give  the  largest  berries,  but  at  such  an  ex- 
pense both  of  time  and  patience  as  to  deter  most 
cultivators  from  the  experiment.  Suckers  are  liable 
to  the  same  objection,  though  in  a  somewhat  less 
degree ;  and  grafting,  except  by  approach,  rarely 
succeeds. |  Layers  and  cuttings  are,  therefore,  the 
modes  generally  employed;  of  each  of  which  we 
shall  say  a  few  words  :  and, 

*  Olivier,  speaking  of  caprification,  says,  "  It  is  a  tribute  paid 
by  man  to  ignorance  and  prejudice  ;"  adding,  that  the  practice 
is  going  fast  into  disuse,  even  in  the  Ionian  Isles. — Travels  in 
the  Ottoman  Empire. 

t  Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening.    J  Hort.  Trans.,  vol.  i.,  p.  60. 


274  GARDENING. 

1.  Of  Layers. — To  obtain  these,  erect  a  scaffold 
under  any  fruit-bearing_tree,  and  on  this  place  pots 
or  boxes  filled  with  earth,  to  receive  the  branches.* 
These  will  root  sufficiently  the  first  summer ;  after 
which,  they  may  be  transplanted  to  the  nursery,  and 
trained  to  a  single  stem.     When  four  years  old',  take 
them  up  and  place  them  where  they  are  permanent- 
ly to  stand.     Plants  thus  managed  will  give  fruit  the 
second  or  third  year  after  the  last  planting.! 

2.  By  Cuttings. — These  may  be  eight  or  ten  inches 
long,  with  a  small  portion  of  the  preceding  year's 
wood  attached.     Plant  them  in  any  mild  weather 
of  the  spring  or  autumn,  in  rows  nine  inches  apart, 
leaving  only  one  or  two  buds  above  the  ground ; 
cover  the  bed  with  half  rotten  leaves ;  give  it  a  lit- 
tle water  if  the  weather  be  dry,  and  transplant  the 
next  season  into  the  nursery.     Their  future  treat- 
ment will  be  the  same  as  that  of  layers.     Millar 
suggests  the  rearing  of  cuttings  in  pots  plunged  in 
a  hotbed  ;  but  in  this  experiment  Knight  and  others 
have  failed,  and  recommend,  instead  of  it,  to  plant 
the  cuttings  in  autumn  under  a  south  wall,  where 
they  remain  till  April,  when  they  are  to  be  taken  up, 
placed  in  pots,  and  transferred  to  the  hotbed.     "  In 
this  situation,"  says  Knight,   "they  will  vegetate 
strongly,   and  emit  roots  in  such  abundance,  that 
not  one  cutting  in  a  hundred,  with  proper  attention, 
will  fail."     A  mellow,  fertile  loam  is  the  soil  in  which 
the  mulberry  succeeds  best,  and  the  standard  is  the 
form  generally  given  to  it ;  but  the  experiments  of 
Williams  and  Knight  give  reason  to  believe  that  the 
fruit  would  be  improved  were  we  to  train  the  tree 
against  a  south  wall,  in  either  the  horizontal  or  stel- 
late form.J 

In  pruning  the  mulberry  we  ought  to  aim  at  two 
things  :  diminishing  the  luxuriant  growth  of  the  tree, 

*  Knight.  t  Idem. 

}  Loudon.    Hort.  Trans.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  92,  and  vol.  iii.,  p.  GO. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  275 

and  increasing,  at  the  same  time,  its  disposition  to 
bear  fruit.  ,  Fortunately,  both  objects  are  readily  at- 
tainable by  partial  decortication  ;  by  tight  and  long- 
continued  ligatures  round  the  branches  ;  by  ringing, 
as  already  described  ;  and  with  better  effect  and 
greater  facility,  by  training  the  branches  perpen- 
dicularly, or  nearly  so,  downward.*  The  time  for 
pruning  the  mulberry  is  in  the  spring,  because  it  is 
then  you  can  best  distinguish  the  blossom  buds  from 
others.  Pinch  off  every  barren  shoot,  and  shorten 
every  bearing  one  (not  wanted  to  cover  the  wall)  at 
the  third  or  fourth  leaf;  it  being  well  known  that 
the  bud  immediately  below  the  point  where  the 
branch  is  shortened  will  give  fruit  the  following 
year. 

The  RASPBERRY  (Rubus). — Of  this  plant  there  are 
two  species,  subjects  of  garden  culture :  the  Ideus, 
propagated  for  its  fruit ;  the  Odoralus,  for  its  per- 
fume and  its  rose-coloured  flowers.  It  is  only  of 
the  varieties  of  the  former  that  we  shall  now  speak. 
These  are,  1st,  the  Wood  Raspberry,  giving  a  fruit 
small  and  sweet,  increasing  in  size,  but  diminishing 
in  flavour,  under  cultivation.  2d,  the  large  common 
Raspberry  (both  red  and  white),  giving  good  fruit, 
and  a  great  deal  of  it,  if  favourably  situated  and 
well  managed.  In  rich  and  shaded  soils  it  loses 
much  of  its  flavour;  and  in  those  freely  manured 
with  stable  dung,  becomes  disagreeable  to  the  taste. 
3d,  the  Large  Red  and  the  Large  White  Antwerp,  de- 
cidedly superior  to  the  preceding  sorts,  but  more 
troublesome,  as  they  are  not  productive  but  when 
laid  down  and  protected  from  the  winter  frosts. 
And,  4th.  the  Cane  Stock,  regarded  on  the  whole  as 
the  fittest  for  the  main  crop. 

This  plant  is  a  native  of  cold  and  mountainous 
regions,  and.  of  course,  succeeds  best  when  placed 
on  the  north  sides  of  hills,  or  in  borders  a  little 

*  Hort.  Trans.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  63.  No  tree  submits  to  this  form 
more  readily,  or  to  more  advantage,  than  the  mulberry. 


276  GARDENING. 

shaded.  A  soil  loose  and  moist  (r,ot  wet),  and  oc- 
casionally and  lightly  manured  with  the  surface 
mould  of  old  pasture  land,  is  most  favourable  to  it. 

Like  other  plants  which  perpetuate  themselves 
by  suckers,  as  the  Annana,  the  Jasmin,  the  Bread 
Fruit,  &c.r  the  raspberry  soon  becomes  infertile; 
and  hence  the  rule  for  setting  out  new  plantations 
every  seventh  or  eighth  year.  This  is  done  by  seeds 
and  cuttings,  but  better  and  more  generally  by  suck- 
ers, taken  up  in  the  fall  or  in  the  spring,  and  set  out 
in  well-laboured  trenches  four  feet  asunder,  and  at 
the  distance  in  these  of  two  and  a  half  feet  apart. 
If  placed  nearer  together,  they  crowd  and  injure 
each  other ;  and  if  farther  removed,  they  lose  the 
advantage  of  the  shade  they  would  otherwise  mu- 
tually furnish. 

The  raspberry,  when  left  to  itself,  remains  long 
barren,  or  productive  only  in  leaves  and  wood  ;  but, 
so  soon  as  it  acquires  a  sufficient  number  of  lateral 
branches,  its  fertility  commences.  To  hasten  this 
effect,  therefore,  is  the  great  desideratum  in  the  cul- 
ture of  the  plant ;  and  the  knife  is  accordingly  em- 
ployed freely  and  annually,  in  removing  the  old 
wood,  and  in  shortening  the  young  to  one  third  of 
its  length.  Of  the  retained  and  shortened  shoots, 
not  more  than  five  should  be  left  to  a  bush  ;*  and  if 
they  be  either  of  the  Antwerp  races,  they  should  bo 
carefully  covered  with  earth  on  the  approach  of 
winter,  as  otherwise  the  effect  of  the  frost  will 
much  impair,  if  it  does  not  entirely  destroy,  their 
fertility  for  the  ensuing  season. 

We  need  scarcely  add,  that,  though  hardy,  the 
raspberry,  to  do  well,  must  be  kept  from  weeds. 

*  Loudon.  J.  C.  Kecht(  Versuchder  Weinbau)  produces  ber- 
ries at  Berlin  much  larger  than  are  known  elsewhere,  by  train- 
ing a  single  stem  to  the  height  of  8  or  10  feet,  and  vigorously  re- 
moving all  suckers.  This  is  directly  opposed  to  the  theory  of 
shortening  the  stems  for  the  purpose  of  producing  side-shoots  ; 
without  which,  it  has  been  generally  thought  that  v  he  plant  could 
not  be  made  productive. 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  277 

The  STRAWBERRY  (Fragaria). — Of  this  there  are 
several  species,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  Pine, 
the  Single-leaf  or  Monophy  lla,  and  the  Chili,  natives 
•of  South  America;  the  Carolina, the  Scarlet  or  Vir- 
ginian, and  the  Wood,  natives  of  North  America ; 
and  the  Hautboy,  and  Alpine  or  Prolific,  natives  of 
Europe.  Of  these,  the  Alpine  and  the  wood  are 
best  propagated  from  seeds,  as  in  this  way  they 
never  fail  to  reproduce  themselves,  and  give  fruit  as 
soon,  and  of  a  finer  quality,  than  the  offsets.  The 
other  species  are  more  readily  multiplied  by  run- 
ners ;  which,  as  they  take  root  at  every  joint,  and 
grow  the  more  vigorously  the  more  they  are  cut, 
necessarily  furnish  a  great  abundance  of  plants. 

When  seeds  are  used,  we  must  be  careful  to  em- 
ploy fresh  and  well-ripened  fruit,  mastitd  in  the 
hand,  and  mixed  with  a  little  mellow  earth,  and 
sown  in  rows  three  feet  apart.  When,  on  the  other 
hand,  runners  are  employed,  they  must  be  taken  off 
near  the  ground,  divided  into  sets,  planted  in  rows 
as  in  the  other  case,  and  occasionally  lightly  shaded 
and  watered,  until  they  give  evidence  of  having 
taken  root,  which  they  rarely  fail  to  do  very  prompt- 
ly. In  both  processes,  the  ground  must  be  kept 
loose  and  clean,  and  moderately  manured  with  com- 
post dung. 

With  regard  either  to  general  or  special  rules  in 
this  case,  we  cannot  do  better  than  to  make  the  read- 
er acquainted  with  the  method  of  Mr.  Keans,  of 
Islesworth,  an  English  fruit-gardener,  who  has  cul- 
tivated the  strawberry  with  uncommon  success. 
"  In  preparing  the  ground,"  says  he,  "  if  new  and 
stiff,  trench  it ;  but  if  the  subsoil  be  of  an  inferior 
kind,  simply  dig  it,  and  place  the  dung  at  the  bot- 
tom :  if,  again,  the  soil  be  good  to  the  full  depth, 
bring  the  bottom  spit  to  the  top,  and  the  top  spit  to  the 
bottom,  and  place  the  dung  between  the  two.  The 
month  of  March  is  the  best  time  for  planting  either 
seedlings  or  runners,  and  remember  to  make  your 


278  GARDENING. 

plantations  of  these,  and  never  from  old  plants. 
Sow  in  beds  of  three  or  four  rows,  with  alleys  be- 
tween the  beds  to  walk  and  work  in.  When  the 
planting  is  finished,  keep  the  bed  free  from  weeds, 
and  permit  no  crops  between  the  rows.  When  the 
runners  begin  to  show  themselves,  cut  them  away 
at  least  three  times  in  the  season  ;  and  at  each  cut- 
ting dig  the  ground  between  the  rows  ;  and  as  of- 
ten, cover  the  surface  with  a  sprinkling  of  clean 
straw,*  for  the  purpose,  principally,  of  preventing 
evaporation.  One  of  these  cuttings  must  be  done  a 
short  time  before  the  fruit  ripens,  and  will  have  a 
powerful  effect  in  strengthening  the  root;  and,  at 
the  second  digging,  work  into  the  rows  a  little  half- 
rotted  du^g." 

To  these  remarks,  which  apply  to  all  the  varieties 
alike,  Mr.  Keans  subjoins  a  few  specific  notices  as 
follows : 

"  1.  For  the  Pine  strawberry  the  best  soil  is  a 
light  loam,  though  no  other  strawberry  will  bear  a 
strong  loam  better  than  this.  This  is  the  sort  from 
which  it  is  most  difficult  to  obtain  a  good  crop. 
Particular  care  must  be  taken  that  they  are  planted 
in  open  ground ;  for  in  small  gardens  they  grow 
strong,  but  seldom  bear  fruit,  in  consequence  of  being 
shaded  by  standard  trees,  and,  under  walnut-trees  in 
in  particular,  they  run  altogether  to  leaf.  In  planting 
pines  I  keep  the  beds  two  feet  apart,  and  put  the 
plants  eighteen  inches  from  each  other  in  the  rows, 
leaving  three  feel  alleys  between  the  beds.  The 
first  year  of  the  pine  is  the  best ;  the  second  gives 
a  good  crop,  but  the  third  gives  less. 

"  2.  The  Scarlet  must  be  treated  like  the  Pine, 
excepting  that  the  rows  may  be  a  little  nearer  to- 
gether, and  the  alleys  between  them  a  little  less. 

"  3.  The  Hautboy  thrives  best  in  a  light  soil  well 
supplied  with  dung  ;  for  excess  of  manure  does  not 

*  It  is  from  this  practice  that  the  plant  derives  its  name 


FIIUIT    GARDEN.  279 

drive  it  into  leaf  like  the  pine.  In  other  respects, 
the  culture  is  the  same  as  for  the  pine.  There  are, 
however,  many  different  sorts  of  Hautboys :  one 
has  the  male  and  female  organs  in  the  same  blos- 
som, and  bears  freely  ;  but  the  sort  I  prefer  is  the 
one  which  contains  the  male  organs  in  one  blossom 
and  the  female  in  another.  The  fruit  of  this  is  of 
the  finest  colour,  and  of  far  superior  flavour.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  there  are  not  too  many  male 
plants  in  the  bed ;  for,  as  they  bear  no  fruit,  they  make 
more  runners  than  the  females.  One  male  to  ten  fe- 
males is  the  proper  proportion  for  an  abundant  crop. 

"  4.  The  Wood  strawberry  is  best  raised  from  seed 
fresh  gathered,  sowing  it  immediately  in  a  bed  of 
rich  earth.  When  of  proper  size,  I  transfer  thjs 
plants  to  other  beds,  where  they  continue  tiljl  the 
next  March.  They  are  then  planted  out  in  beds 
and  rows,  and  at  the  distances  before  described. 
And, 

"  5.  The  Alpine  or  Prolific  must  always  be  raised 
from  the  seed,  sown  in  a  bed  of  rich  earth.  When 
of  proper  size  (which  will  be  in  July  or  August), 
the  plants  are  put  out  in  rows,  at  the  back  of  hedges 
or  of  walls,  in  a  rich,  moist  soil ;  the  rows  two  feet 
apart,  and  the  plants  twelve  inches  from  each  other. 
My  Alpines  this  year,  and  thus  managed,  are  bear- 
ing most  abundantly ;  and  so  much  so,  that,  in  gath- 
ering them,  there  is  not  room  for  the  women  to  set 
their  feet  without  destroying  many.  In  quickness 
of  bearing  the  Alpines  are  before  all  other  sorts,  as 
they  give  their  fruit  within  a  single  year ;  whereas 
the  others  do  not  bear  under  two  years." 

In  gathering  the  fruit,  employ  only  dry  weather. 
Berries  taken  early  in  the  morning  and  late  in  the 
evening  keep  the  best,  but  those  picked  at  midday 
have  the  most  perfume.  Pinch  off  the  calyx  and 
one  quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  peduncle  with  the 
berry. 

The  WALNUT  (Juglans  regia). — This  tree  is  sup- 


280  GARDENING. 

posed  to  be  a  native  of  Persia,  and  of  the  southern 
side  of  Mount  Caucasus,  and  yields  a  nut  which 
holds  a  considerable  place  among  the  dessert  fruits, 
and  which  has  been  recommended,  as  far  back  as 
the  time  of  Pliny,  as  a  safe  and  powerful  vermi- 
fuge.* Its  varieties  are  the  Oval,  the  Large  French,! 
the  Tender,  and  the  Thick-shelled. 

To  obtain  these,  Millar  and  Forsyth  recommend 
sowing  the  nuts  in  a  nursery,  keeping  them  clean, 
and  leaving  their  maturity  to  time,  without  any  in- 
terposition of  art  to  hasten  their  productiveness. 
But  Knight  and  others  have  succeeded  so  well  by 
inarching  and  budding,  that  these  methods  may  be 
considered  as  having  nearly  superseded  the  older 
and  slower  modes  of  propagation.  In  employing 
the  former  (inarching),  your  young  plants,  growing 
in  pots,  are  raised  to  some  branch  of  an  old  bearing 
tree,  and  grafted  by  approach.  A  union  takes  place 
in  the  summer ;  and  in  the  fall  you  detach  the  scioa 
from  the  parent  stem.  In  the  other  case,  the  pro- 
cess is  equally  sure  and  less  troublesome.  Many 
minute  buds,  almost  concealed  in  the  bark,  will  be 
found  near  the  base  of  the  annual  shoots.  These 
must  be  taken  in  preference  to  those  which  are 
fuller  and  more  prominent,  and  inserted  near  the 
summit  of  the  last  year's  wood,  and,  of  course,  near 
the  base  of  the  annual  shoots.  "  Thus  managed," 
says  Knight,  "  they  will  be  found  to  succeed  with 
nearly  as  much  certainty  as  those  of  other  fruit- 
trees,  provided  the  buds  be  in  a  more  mature  state 
than  those  of  the  stock  into  which  they  are  set." 

The  walnut-tree  grows  well  in  many  different 
soils,  but  does  best  in  a  deep,  sandy  loam,  resting 
on  a  dry  subsoil.  It  is  often  employed  as  a  screen 
for  other  and  more  delicate  fruit-trees,  in  which 
case  it  is  arranged  on  the  northern  and  western  side 

*  The  Spaniards  grate  the  nut  into  their  tarts,  &c.,  probably 
with  a  view  to  its  supposed  medicinal  quality. 
t  Before  15C2  it  was  called  the  Gaul  or  French  nut 


FRUIT    GARDEN.  281 

of  the  garden.  Its  diseases  are  generally  the  result 
of  accident,  and  it  has  few,  if  any,  enemies  among 
the  insect  tribes. 

The  CHESTNUT  (fragus  castanea)  is  a  native  of  Sar- 
dis,  and,  it  is  said,  was  first  brought  to  Europe  by  Ti- 
berius Caesar.  Be  this  fact  as  it  may,  another,  of 
which  we  are  better  assured,  is,  that  the  tree  has 
been  long  naturalized  in  Italy  and  Spain,  and  that 
in  these  countries  it  contributes  an  important  article 
to  the  food  of  man. 

Like  the  walnut,  it  was  long  propagated  by  sow- 
ing the  nut;  but  the  shorter  process  of  grafting  (as 
already  detailed  under  the  preceding  article)  may 
be  advantageously  substituted  for  this.  The  exper- 
iments of  the  late  Sir  J.  Banks  and  of  Mr.  Knight 
demonstrate  that  "the  Spanish  chestnut  succeeds 
readily,  when  grafted  in  almost  any  of  the  usual 
ways ;  and  that,  when  the  grafts  are  taken  from 
bearing  branches,  the  young  trees  blossom  the  suc- 
ceeding year."* 

The  soil  most  proper  for  the  chestnut  is  a  sandy 
loam,  on  a  dry  subsoil.  With  regard  to  situation, 
it  does  well  in  northern  and  western  borders ;  but, 
as  its  shade  is  unfriendly  to  any  vegetable  growing 
under  it,  the  better  method  is  to  give  it  a  square  by 
itself. 

The  FILBERT  (Coj-ylus  avellana). — This  is  the  com- 
mon hazelnut  improved  by  cultivation.  Its  princi- 
pal varieties  are,  the  White,  the  Red,  the  Barcelona, 
the  Cosford,  and  the  Long  Cob,  all  of  which  are  prop- 
agated alike  by.  suckers,  by  layers,  and  by  seeds. 
When  the  last  of  these  modes  is  employed,  sow  the 
nuts  in  October  or  November,  and  keep  the  plants 
in  the  nursery  till  they  are  two  years  old ;  after 
which,  set  them  out,  and  manure  and  dress  them 
occasionally.  But  the  better  method  of  propagating 
them  is  that  by  suckers.  These  are  taken  up  in 

*  Hort.  Trans.,  vol.  i.,  p.  61. 


282  GARDENING. 

the  fall  or  spring,  and  planted  out  in  rows,  at  the 
distance  of  ten  or  twelve  feet  from  each  other, 
where  they  undergo  several  sevt-r«  and  successive 
prunings,  for  the  purpose  "of  hollowing  out  the 
head  into  the  form  of  a  punch-bowl,  and  of  deter- 
mining the  whole  nourishment  of  the  tree  to  the 
production  of  the  fruit."  Williamson  is,  however 
of  opinion,  that  the  severity  of  this  discipline  de- 
feats itself,  and  is,  in  fact,  the  reason  why  the  plants 
give  no  fruit  three  years  out  of  five.  Instead,  there- 
fore, of  a  rigid  adherence  to  the  Maidstone  practice, 
he  recommends  "  that  the  trees  be  left  in  a  great 
degree  to  their  natural  growth  and  shape." 

In  some  parts  of  England,  the  filbert  forms  an  ob- 
ject of  very  profitable  culture,  giving,  per  acre,  on 
an  average  produce  of  five  years,  five  hundred 
pounds'  weight  of  nuts. 

The  maturity  of  the  fruit  is  indicated  by  the 
brown  colour  of  the  nut  and  the  husk,  and  the  readi- 
ness with  which  these  separate.  Braddick's  method 
of  preserving  the  fruit,  by  putting  it  up  in  airtight 
casks,  is  no  doubt  the  best.  The  filbert  is  neither 
often  nor  seriously  attacked  by  insects.  The  eggs 
of  the  curculio  kukans  are  sometimes  deposited  in 
the  germen,  where,  when  matured,  they  subsist 
upon  the  kernel.  The  only  cure  for  this  is  to  de- 
stroy the  nuts  which  are  so  attacked,  and  with  them 
the  larvae,  before  they  attain  the  fly  state. 


THK   END 


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